OUTLINES 

OF 

PEDAQOQICS 



REIN 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 



I ©]^itp> Sqiijrtgfjt f 0*-— — . 

Shelf -.LB-i-0 Z f 



UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS. 



BY 



PROFESSOR W. REIN, 

DIRECTOR OF THE PEDAGOGICAL SEMINARY AT THE 
UNIVERSITY OF JENA. 



TRANSLATED BY 

C C. AND IDA J. VAN LIEW. 

WfTH ADDITIONAL NOTES BY THE FORMER. 




NEW YORK AND CHICAGO 

L. KELLOGG & C 

1893. 



'j^c^f'i 



l&iozs 

.R37 



Copyright, -1893, 
E. L. KELLOGG & CO. 



AUTHOR'S PREFACE. 



The question as to the best form or the mosi; com- 
plete system of education is obviously one of the deep- 
est and most impressive problems that engages the at- 
tention of every one who stands in the midst of the 
activity of public life — the statesman and the friend of 
the people, as well as the solitary thinker. The most 
mxanifold lines of human reflection, and the most diverse 
motives of human action, centre in education. None 
other than such questions as: What is human happi- 
ness ? — and, How may the rising generation be led to 
this highest aim ? — What efforts must society make in 
order to approach nearer to its destiny ? show the sig- 
nificance and difficulty of this problem, which, in its 
social phases, is closely connected with all social 
problems. 

He who is accustomed not to content himself with 
the surface, but to get to the bottom of a question, 
would at first be dismayed at the mass of relations that 
focus, as it were, at this point. At the same time, how- 
ever, he would soon feel the necessity of finding his way 
out of the mass, and, above all, of throwing light upon 
the question as to what -education aims at and is able 
to do. 

3 



4 Author's Preface, 

This need can only be satisfied by preparing a sys- 
tematically arranged whole that is characterized by 
carefully developed conceptions, and suited by virtue of 
its clearness to supply a firm foundation upon which 
the foot may rest tranquilly in the midst of contradict- 
ory opinions. 

But, of course, a system is of value only to him in 
whom it has developed. The truth that has merely 
been learned adheres to us like a false member, a false 
tooth, or a waxen nose. The system that has merely 
been learned has no power, and acquires no significance, 
for the mental life. It is a lifeless fund, from which 
streams no animating warmth, no life-giving energy. 
Only the truth that has been obtained by one's own re- 
flection resembles the natural member; it alone really 
belongs to us; it penetrates our entire being, elevates 
us, affords us certainty, insures us the full power of con- 
viction, and gives impulse to a manifold activity. 

Nevertheless, I undertake to present in this work the 
outlines of a system of pedagogics. Not every one can 
beget each thought anew in himself. Otherwise, why 
the collection and transmission of already acquired 
intellectual treasures ? But every one should seek 
to enter thoroughly and heartily into that which the 
labor of another has produced; he should test for 
himself in how far it can lay claim to truth, and 
assist him in his own search for clear, stable convic- 
tions. 

In view of the brevity imposed upon the series of 
publications^ among which this work appears, nothing 
more than an introductory survey of the broad field of 

* Sammlung Gosdien. 



Author's Preface, 5 

education and educational work can be given. Such a 
comprehensive survey is necessary for all those who 
have the education of the people at heart, especially for 
those to whom both the supervision and education of 
the rising generation in the lower, middle, and higher 
schools is entrusted. 

"With the above end in view, I present this volume. 
May it not appear unworthy to the pedagogical in- 
terest which prevails in our age; may it inspire to new 
reflections, and help to level the way for a rational 
education among the people. W. REiif. 

jEifA, Wth August, 1892. 



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CONTENTS. 



PAGE 

Author's Preface. 3 

Introduction 9 

PART I. 

THEORY OF THE PURPOSE OF EDUCATION (TELEOLOGY). 

Chapter I. What Education is and how its Purpose 

IS Determined 21 

II. The Supreme Purpose of Education 28 

PART II. 

THEORY OF THE MEANS OF EDUCATION {METHODOLOGY}. 

Chapter I. General Outlines of Methodology 35 

II. The Aim of Instruction 43 

III. The Selection op the Subject-matter op 

Instruction 49 

IV. Arrangej'.ient (Connection) of Material 

FOR Instruction.— General Outline... 58 
V. Co-ordination, Connection, and Concen- 
tration op' Studies 65 

VI. Treatment of the Subject-matter 93 

VII. Special Didactics. . . ". , 115 

Chapter VIII. The Theory of Guidance 120 

I. Theory of Training , 120 

II. The Government of Children 136 

III. Physical Culture 139 

The English Literature on the Herbartian System 143 

7 



OUTLINES OF PEDAGOGICS, 



INTRODUCTION. 

AccoKDiKG to Kant, the great secret of the perfec- 
tion of human nature lies concealed in education. It 
is delightful to imagine that human nature will always 
be developed to something higher and better by educa- 
tion, and that the latter may be brought into a form 
suited to mankind. In such meditations we picture to 
ourselves a future happier humanity. How gladly 
would we dwell upon this thought that once inspired 
Plato to exclaim : " There is nothing more divine than 
education/^ Without this feeling of inspiration, with- 
out such a lofty purpose ever before the eyes, educators 
would hardly be able persistently to endure the constant 
sacrifice that they make in forcing themselves to bend 
the virile intellect to the child^s world. They would 
hardly be able to overcome the conception that the 
world will remain as it is in spite of education, if they 
were not always animated by the hope that their ef- 
forts would bear rich fruits in the individual and in 
society. 

9 



lo Outlines of Pedagogics, 

It is the thought of ennobling the human race whicli, 
eyer and again, engages the attention of both the edu- 
cators and the friends of the people. 

Eloquent words often portraj^ for us how yain it is 
to hope for better times if man himself is not bettered. 
The cultivation of humanity must begin within man 
himself and radiate from him to society. What is 
gained if we succeed in advancing the cultivation of 
the soil, in enlivening the commercial and industrial 
spirit everywhere, in giving the greatest degree of per- 
fection to the laws and statutes of countries, when man 
himself is not worthy of inhabiting such a beautiful 
earth, is not able to find a heaven in it ? 

In fact the idea is often directly expressed, that the 
destiny of a nation, its prime as well as its decay, de- 
pends almost entirely upon the education that falls to 
the lot of its youth. Frederick the Great also did rever- 
ence to this thought in the words : " He who considers 
mankind good, does not understand the human race; 
for mankind left to himself is brutal. Only education 
is able to ennoble him." The same conception is also 
emphasized by the philosopher of Konigsberg^ in the 
following proposition: "Man can only become human 
through education. He is nothing except what educa- 
tion makes of him." 

In view of such opinions it seems to be easily conceiv- 
able that new efforts are constantly being made to 
clarify, explain, and arrange the manifold views as to 
the purpose, means, and methods of education, and to 
condense them into a form which, in accordance with 
the saying of the above-mentioned sage, is suited to man- 

1 Kant.— r's. 



Introduction, ii 

"kind. It is explicable why one is never tired of pro- 
claiming that that people is mightiest and happiest 
which, in accordance with this form of education, has 
attained the deepest and broadest culture, extending 
even to the lowest strata of society; that it is invincible 
by its neighbors, and either envied by its contemporaries 
or regarded as an illustrious example for their imitation. 

And we certainly do not reason thus unjustly; for the 
historical power of education asserts itself very percept- 
ibly whenever new thoughts are to be infused into the 
life and character of a new generation. 

Hence, one might easily be tempted to overrate the 
power of education when he sees that the most dis- 
tinguished intellects expect everything of it. But the 
facts of every-day life admonish us to be discreet. Do 
we not constantly see both children and nations that 
fall far short of the ideal which educators have sketched 
for them, and again, others without special preparation 
who, following solely their own inward impulse, and 
even under the most adverse external circumstances, 
advance nobly and raise themselves far above the stra- 
tum from which they started ? In some cases, there- 
fore, we meet with retrogression in defiance of all edu- 
cation ; in others, progress by virtue of self -power. But 
what becomes of the improvement of all humanity, 
what of that enchanting vision of the human race made 
happier by an education that is arranged with a definite 
aim ? 

It would obviously be quite wrong to attempt to 
question the power of education in general because it 
has not always achieved either in individuals or in en- 
tire generations that which it had in view. Without 
doubt Nature and the world do much more for those 



1 2 Outlines of Pedagogics, 

who are to be educated than education itself, as a rule, 
can boast of accomplishing. But, on the other hand, it 
cannot be disputed that those evil influences in Nature 
and the world which also assail the educable individual, 
may likewise be met effectively by a systematically ar- 
ranged education. And this view is also deeply rooted 
in the common consciousness of society. Would the 
family and society otherwise devote such profound in- 
terest and such constant care and encouragement to an 
institution of whose inefficiency everyone was suffi- 
ciently convinced ? How often one hears the complaint 
among the events of every-day life that the wreck of 
some young human being is the consequence of a wrong 
or deficient education ! 

How often very conspicuous deficiencies are excused 
by the faulty method of education ! On the contrary, 
also, we often meet with the expression of pessimistic 
views which agree with the words of Horace : " Though 
you drive out Nature with a pitchfork, yet will she 
always return." 

Opinions vacillate between these two extremes. At 
one time all results are ascribed to necessity. Nature, or 
heredity; at another to freedom, art, or individual 
acquisition. Society, not to be misled by this strife, 
takes its stand in favor of education; for it will not 
leave the development of the rising generation to 
chance. Hence it has organized a great variety of in- 
stitutions and schools in which to prepare its youth for 
the various positions and tasks of life. 

If the families, above all, care for the education of the 
single individual, the schools on their part should pre- 
serve and impart the inherited blessings of civilization, 
those priceless treasures upon which thousands of years 



Introduction, 13 

have labored. They should strive to develop efficient 
members of society, that the people may never be lack- 
ing in national power, nor the Church in worshippers 
of the Divine. This position of the schools among 
human institutions is based upon the conception of a 
gradual moral inspiration of society as the highest stage 
of moral development which it must strive to attain. 

Upon this highest stage of development the com- 
munity would appear as truly morally inspired. All 
society is, then, pervaded by a clear insight into the 
ethical ideas which govern the entire social body, and 
inspired by a firm will to obey this insight, to present 
a symmetrical and, as far as possible, complete em- 
bodiment of the moral ideas, as the loftiest mission of 
life. In order gradually to approach this ideal of a 
morally inspired community, various institutions are 
necessary. The indispensable foundation of all moral 
progress is a thorough, firmly established, legal order. 
Without this society becomes alarmed and disordered, 
and either labors but little or not at all. The inter- 
dependence of the various activities of life, the fitting 
division of labor is effected only upon a strictly legal 
basis. At first, therefore, society exists in the form of 
a legal community for the purpose of bringing about 
the complete realization of the idea of rights within 
the entire body. In conjunction with a well-perfected 
system of rewards and punishments, it aims to remove 
from social life, as far as possible, those elements that 
are repugnant to human nature — strife and the in- 
fringement of personal rights; and to leave no evil 
deeds unpunished nor good deeds unrewarded. Pro- 
ceeding upon this foundation, the administrative system 
can undertake to provide abundantly for the material 



14 Outlines of Pedagogics, 

wants in order to engender that social disposition whicli 
is necessary for all scientiiic and artistic production, 
and to place at disposal the means by which various 
institutions may be maintained. The establishment and 
care of the latter is the task of the educational system, 
which could not exist without the above-mentioned 
social regulations, but which on the other hand pays 
society a liberal interest upon all that it has received 
from them. In that it generally nourishes a sturdy 
sense of law, order, and justice, and cultivates the sense 
of right, it raises the mere legal community up to a 
higher plane upon which strife, infringement of rights 
and deeds of rough violence are abominated. The in- 
fluence of culture shows itself to be just as beneficent in 
its effects upon the system of rewards and punishments, 
for a higher culture ennobles and refines the reward 
and tempers the punishments. It also affects the ad- 
ministrative system by awakening an insight into the 
beauty of benevolence, and thereby gradually develop- 
ing the public sympathy for the mutual interests of 
society, and a readiness to make sacrifice on their 
behalf; it stamps upon- all a conviction that every 
thorough and lasting reform in social life is to be 
sought only in the constant, systematic elevation of the 
national culture. Only from this starting-point can 
the highest form of social life, the permanent moral 
inspiration of society, be gradually approached. 

Such a systematic and well-planned education of 
both the individual and the entire social body becomes 
so much the more necessary in proportion as those in- 
fluences are stronger which, as the occult coadjutors of 
education, might endanger its success. 

Both the circle of the family and that of social inter- 



Introduction. 15 

course are subjected to forces that are actiye in the entire 
social body, and that penetrate the entire atmosphere of 
human life in invisible channels. No one knows whence 
these currents, these ideas arise; but they are there. 
They influence the moods, the aspirations, and the in- 
clinations of humanity, and no one however powerful 
can withdravf himself from their effect; no sovereign's 
command makes its way into their depths. They are 
often born of a genius to be seized upon by the multi- 
tude that soon forgets their author; then the power of 
the thought that has thus become active in the masses 
again impels the individual to energetic resolutions: in 
this manner it is constantly describing a remarkable 
circle. Originating with those that are highly gifted, 
these thoughts permeate all society, reaching, in fact, 
not only its adult members, but also through these its 
youth, and appearing again in other highly gifted indi- 
viduals in whom they will perhaps have been elevated 
to a definite form. 

Whether the power of these dominant ideas is greater 
in the individual, or in the body of individuals, as a 
whole, is a matter of indifference here. Be that as it 
may, it cannot be denied that their effect upon the one 
is manifested in a reciprocal action upon the other, and 
that their influence upon the younger generation is in- 
disputable. Y/hen the older generation has lost its 
moral elasticity, it will not seem astonishing if the suc- 
ceeding generation seeks to surpass its ancestors in sen- 
suality and in the race after material possessions. Both 
the spirit of the family and the spirit of society, work- 
ing together either in harmony or in strife, act uninter- 
ruptedly upon the formation of the youthful minds, and 
influence them either for evil or for good. 



1 6 Outlines of Pedagogics, 

Besides these factors, two especial institutions, both 
of which are strong and accustomed to rule, seek to 
obtain possession of the youth. Both endeavor to test 
their strength for the purpose of determining in how 
far they can draw the educational establishments of the 
people into their power. These two institutions are the 
Church and the State. The former desires to educate 
faithful members, the latter obedient citizens. Since 
something always depends upon the foundation that is 
laid, each desires to direct the education of the youth 
conformably to its own judgment, in accordance with 
the well-known maxim : " He who has the youth has the 
future.'^ 

In either case education will receive a very definite 
and fixed stamp. At one time we shall hear of the 
State system of pedagogy, at another time of the Church 
system of pedagogy. Each will have its various shades 
according to the different conceptions and the different 
constitutions of the State or the Church. For example, 
in the past, education by the State has received special 
forms in the organization of the ancient state, or in 
certain 'philosophical systems, such as that of Plato or 
Fichte. Education by the Church has received a very 
marked character in the pedagogics of the Jesuits. 

Of all powers that would take possession of educa- 
tion, State and Church are the most influential. But if 
we review once more the series of educational forces — ^ 
Nature, family, social intercourse, the tendencies mani- 
fested in the spirit of the times, the political and eccle- 
siastical constitution of society — we shall find that they 
affect education in part occultly and without being con- 
scious of the end in view, in part in a designedly sys- 
tematic way. To the occult coadjutors of education 



Introduction. 17 

belong without doubt the tendencies manifested in the 
spirit of the age, social intercourse, and Nature. The 
education of the youth will be controlled in a designedly 
systematic manner by the family, the Church, and the 
State. Each one of these will exercise a determinative 
influence; each will endeavor to mould the rising youth 
according to its own views. No prudent and intelligent 
person would dispute the right of the family to do this; 
but this natural right is too often curtailed by the claims 
which State and Church advance. How often these two 
pov>^ers are at variance with one another, each endeavor- 
ing to gain the advantage over the other ! Hence, from 
this point of view also, the great significance of educa- 
tion in the life of nations becomes clearly apparent. 
The reflective man finds it easy to explain why the 
friends of the people, in proportion as they strive more 
faithfully for intellectual and moral elevation, endeavor 
to penetrate more and more deeply and permanently 
into the great questions of education in all its phases — 
the ethical, the psychological, and the sociological. 
Their eyes should be open to both the occult and the 
visible influences to which the growing youth are ex- 
posed. They are, therefore, forced to consider the 
question: Is there a higher unity which possesses the 
power to remove the opposing influences and to unite 
and blend the good forces with itself ? 

Will it be possible to find a form of education which, 
in accordance with the words of Kant, is suited to the 
needs of humanity ? Shall we ever succeed in establish- 
ing an educational system which contains no contradic- 
tion within itself, is pervaded by an harmonious spirit, 
and is able to attract and fill with a lasting inspiration 
the ffood and noble men of all nations ? 



1 8 Outlines of Pedagogics. 

Such is our hope, and such are our endeavors, at 
least; for the thought as to what would become of the 
rising generation if left alone at the mercy of those 
powers, is too distressing. Would not this be leaving 
education to chance, — which were no wiser than writing 
letters in the sand of the sea-shore ? If we desire at all 
to lead the rising generation to a higher stage of de- 
velopment, a direct, systematic, conscious influence, such 
as can only result from a well-pondered and firmly-estab- 
lished system of education, must be placed over against 
the invisible, unconscious, but ever active influences. 

The vast extent of this theme requires at first a clear 
preparatory survey. Two fields of investigation may 
be clearly distinguished within the entire sphere of 
pedagogy. 

1. If we inquire into the nature and conception, the 
necessity and possibility, the limits and aims, and the 
ways and means of education, our investigations fall 
under the head of theoretical pedagogics. 

2. If the investigations are directed to the actual 
relations of life, to the arrangements for public and 
private education, and the present usage as it has de- 
veloped in the course of centuries, we enter the sphere 
of practical pedagogics. To this subject belong the 
questions of school legislation (school administration, 
school equipment, school organization, etc. ), of domestic/ 
and institutional education, and of pedagogics as applied 
to the high school and to the common school. 

Both divisions, the theoretical and the practical, to- 
gether constitute systematic pedagogics* beside the 
latter stands liistoyncal pedagogics. If we view the 
present system of education as a development, and in- 
vestigate the conditions under which this development 



Introduction, 19 

has taken 'place, we are occupied with historical peda- 
gogics. It belongs to the province of this department 
of pedagogics to delineate the educational conditions 
of the past, and to pursue their development up to the 
present. 

Accordingly we may fix upon the following classi- 
fication : 

Pedagogics. 



(A) Systematic Pedagogics. (B) Historical Pedagogics. 



1. Theoretical 2. Practical 
Pedagogics. Pedagogics. 

In the following chapters we propose to give a survey 
of the theoretical division of systematic pedagogics. 



THEORETICAL PEDAGOGICS. 



The first task of theoretical pedagogics which 
presents itself is to show that and how the aim of 
education is to be derived from ethics. This is the 
task of teleology. As soon as the ends which education 
has to fulfil, are known, the next question is that of the 
means by which these aims are to be reached. This 
question must be decided by that science which treats 
of the laws to which the inner life of man conforms, 
viz., psychology. It is, therefore, the task of method- 
ology to show how the choice, arrangement, and prepa- 
ration of the intellectual food may be adapted to the 
psychical laws. 

Accordingly, we have the following outline : 

Theoeetical Pedagogics. 



(I) Theory of the purpose of (II) Theory of the means of 

education. Teleology. education. Methodology. 

(^Ethics.) {Psychology.) 

20 



Part I. 

THEORY OF THE PURPOSE OF EDUCATION 
(TELEOLOGY). 



PVHAT EDUCATION IS AND HOW ITS PURPOSE 
IS DETERMINED. 

Conception of Education. — When the educator re- 
flects as to what he shall make of his pupil with refer- 
ence to human society, the first thought that suggests 
itself is to investigate the conception of education for 
the purpose of gaining some hints as to its aim. 

Unfortunately, one does not advance very far by this 
means. The investigation of the conception of educa- 
tion, however, reveals certain real features that are 
present in the reflections of every one. But that very 
little progress can be made by beginning in this manner 
becomes apparent at once when we briefly review these 
features : 

1. In the first place, we find that education takes 



2 2 Outlines of Pedagogics, 

place only with mankind — a fact which Rosenkranz 
sums up in the following words: " Man is educated by 
man for humanity/^ 

2. We know that education does not extend to adults, 
but is confined to the children. The latter are cared 
for by their elders. Wherever children are left to them- 
selves, no education takes place. 

3. By investigating the conception of education, we 
learn that the educative activity must be systematic and 
well arranged, if it is to succeed. Hence, Waitz said: 
" Education is the systematic exertion of an influence 
upon the inner life of another while it is yet educable." 

4. The psychical condition of the pupil should not be 
influenced merely during the activity of the educator, 
but should attain a permanent form; neither should it 
be affected in spite of, or in conflict with, his influence. 
The training which the one that is being educated re- 
ceives through education should acquire a certain stabil- 
ity and durability. 

These thoughts are all very good, but we have not 
been brought one step nearer the solution of our ques- 
tion; for no hint whatever is contained in the concep- 
tion of education itself as to what form the character of 
the pupil should attain, or what training he should re- 
ceive. 

Various Conceptions of the Purpose of Education. — 
Since the conception of education itself is not able to 
give definite but only general suggestions, the next 
thought is to turn to history in order to learn what the 
true purpose of education is. In so doing, however, one 
may easily fall into Scylla while trying to avoid Oharyb- 
dis. Shall the educator follow Rousseau, and educate a 
man of nature in the midst of civilized men ? In so 



Plurality of Aims, 2$ 

doing, as Herbart has shown, we should simply repeat 
from the beginning the entire series of evils that have 
already been surmounted. Moreover, it would give the 
educator as much trouble to make a living in such a 
heterogeneous society as in after-life the one whom he 
had educated. Or shall we turn to Locke and prepare 
the pupil for the worlds which is customarily in league 
with worldlings ? We should then arrive at the stand- 
point of Basedow, and aim to educate the pupil so that 
he would become a truly useful member of human 
society. Of course we should always be harassed with 
the secret doubt as to whether this is the ideal purpose 
after all, and whether we are not at times directly en- 
joined to place the pupil at variance with the usage and 
customary dealings of the world. If we reflect that an 
endless career is open to man for his improvement, we 
realize that only that education v/hose aims are always 
the highest, can hope to reach the lofty goals that mark 
this career. 

Pestalozzi's Statement of the Aim Gives but Little 
Satisfaction. — Therefore, an ideal aim must be present 
in the mind of the educator. Possibly he can obtain 
information and help from Pestalozzi, whose nature 
evinced such ideal tendencies. Pestalozzi wished the 
welfare of mankind to be sought in harmonious cultiva- 
tion of all powers. If one only knew what is to be 
understood by a multiplicity of mental powers, and 
what is meant by the Jiarmony of various powers. 
These phrases sound very attractive, but give little 
satisfaction. The purely formal aims of education will 
appeal just as little to the educator: "Educate the 
pupil to independence;^^ or, " educate the pupil to be 
his own educator;" or, " educate the child so that it 



24 Outlines of Pedagogics, 

will become better than its educator" (Hermann and 
Dorothea, Hector and Astyanax in the Iliad). Such 
and similar attempts to fix the purpose of education are 
abundant in the history of pedagogy; but they do not 
bring us nearer the goal. In their formal character 
they do not say, for example, of what kind the in- 
dependence shall be, what content it shall have, what 
aims it shall have in view, or in what directions its 
course shall lie. For the pupil that has become in- 
dependent can use his freedom rightly for good just as 
well as misuse it for evil. 

The Aim must be Stated Concretely. — If the pur- 
pose of education is to possess any real worth, it must, 
above all else, be of a concrete nature; it must indicate 
the content of the mental training. We have just be- 
come acquainted with several formulations which fulfil 
this condition — as, for example, the eudemonistic 
principle of Locke and the philanthropists, Rousseau's 
principle of conformity to nature, and the humanistic 
principle of Pestalozzi, Herder, Lessing, and others, 
which culminates in the demand for a " true humanity." 
To these we can readily add the rationalistic principle, 
which aims to rationality, enlightenment, and intel- 
lectual culture ; the orthodox Christian principle, which 
demands that man, who was created in the image of 
God but lost through sin, be redeemed (Palmer), and 
the pietistic principle of Spener, Francke, and Zinzen- 
dorf, which aspires to piety and godliness. 

The History of Education Submits an Abundance 
of Different Aims. — Without doubt there is an abun- 
dance of examples from which the educator can choose 
to his heart's content. But, as is well known, he who 
has the choice also has the vexation that accompanies it. 



Plurality of Aims, 25 

The desire to attain a firm sta^ndpoint very soon makes 
itself felt. How shall he succeed in finding the lofty 
standpoint upon which he can base his decision with 
complete inner harmony and contentment when his- 
tory submits several aims of education, all of which 
seem to him to be equally valuable and expedient ? 
Perhaps he can overcome the difficulty by combining 
these various aims, thus arriving at a plurality of edu- 
cational purposes which, taken together, are to deter- 
mine the activity of the educator. Does not the attempt 
to do justice to all the different standpoints appear to 
be a happy solution of the difficulty ? Is it not advis- 
able, in accordance with the well-known receipt : " Test 
everything and retain the best," to select and arrange a 
series of aims from' that which is correct in the different 
tendencies ? Thus, for example, let the religious aim 
be selected from the theological sphere, the taste for 
nature and simplicity from Rousseau; from Locke and 
Basedow the regard for one^s skill and ability as a use- 
ful member of, and active participant in, human society; 
from Pestalozzi and the humanists the expansion of 
one^s view of life, so that at some future time the |)upil 
can say with Terence: "Nihil humaui a me alienum 
puto (I find nothing strange that is human)/' 

There must be One Chief, Supreme Educational 
Purpose. — All this might be very good, were it not for 
the fact that such a series of aims resemble a mere col- 
lection or mass of unordered subordinate thoughts that 
happen to be pertinent, rather than a well-organized 
system of properly derived conceptions that are held 
together by some internal bond, and that may be sub- 
sumed under one supreme purpose. 

Accordingly, we are justified in maintaining that we 



2 6 Outlines of Pedagogics , 

should not be content with a multiplicity of educational 
aims, which undoubtedly correspond to different phases 
of human activity, but should pass on to a paramount 
point of view which commands the entire sphere. 

Unity of the Plan is Inconceivable without Unity 
of the Aim. —We can only hope to master the situation 
when the plan of educai^ion appears as a system of 
forces which for years always pursue one and the same 
end. If the work of the pedagog is ever to be regarded 
as, in all respects, a single compact whole, it must also 
be possible to conceive of the task of education as a 
unit. Although it is self-evident that the complexity 
of the work of education requires a multiplicity of aims, 
it is at the same time just as necessary that the multi- 
plicity of aims, offered by experience, be subsumed under 
one chief, supreme, educational purpose. The sovereign 
power of such an aim secures the unity of the pedagogi- 
cal activity. The need of uniformity is satisfied, the 
educator is free to devote his energies uninterruptedly 
to a concentrated activity, in spite of the promptings of 
a crude empiricism and erroneous theories. All single 
educational activities must find their support and cen- 
tre in a single thought which governs them all; no 
isolated means of education, as such, can be regarded as 
of any value, except as it receives its worth and signi- 
ficance through certain definite relations which it bears 
to all other means and to the paramount educational 
aim. Education can make no use of chief and sub- 
ordinate purposes which have to make mutual conces- 
sions, but only of a single supreme purpose which may 
be subdivided into a system of subordinate purposes; 
the latter, on their part, must be so inter-related as to 



Plurality of Aims, 27 

constitute the necessary steps in the attainment of the 
former. 

The Supreme Aim Found in Ethics. — We recollect 
that this uniform purpose is to be found with the aid 
of ethical investigations. It appears therefore, that, in 
order to obtain exact information as to the educational 
purpose which we desire to establish, we must now turn 
to ethics. 



28 Outlines of Pedagogics, 

THE SUPREME PURPOSE OF EDUCATION 

Every Ethical System which Represents Utilari- 
anism or Eudomenism, either Covertly or Openly, is 
Useless for Education. — To tuhat ethics should philo- 
sophical pedagogy turn ? In which form of ethics 
should it seek its foundation ? Should it agree with 
Schleiermacher .in giving up the attempt to attach itself 
to a definite system of ethics, because there is no system 
that is recognized by all, and do well to content itself 
with a general, unsatisfactory answer ? This is not our 
standpoint. Although it is to be granted that no ethical 
system is yet recognized by everybody, there cannot be 
any doubt for a moment, however, that but one group 
of ethical systems should be considered by the educator; 
this is the group of ethical systems which exclude from 
the beginning eudemonism in any form. Eudemonism, 
in whatever form it appears, harbors great dangers. 
Hence, the conclusion is unavoidable that every ethical 
system which represents eudemonism, either covertly or 
openly, is useless for education. Furthermore, a posi- 
tive utilitarianism which condemns everything with the 
utmost contempt that is not directly applicable and use- 
ful, is always allied with eudemonism. Utilitarianism, 
however, only creates the new danger that all ideal 
pursuits will be gradually crowded into the background. 
This would be followed by the appearance of a general 
moral torpidity which would render both society and the 
individual incapable of all higher inspiration, cut off 



The Supreme Purpose of Education, 29 

every possibility of cultivating pure ethical characters, 
and entirely dim the vision for the appreciation of the 
ideally beautiful and good. 

Herbart*s Ethical System a Sound and Safe Basis. 
— Hence, if the educator desires to place only an ideal 
aim in view as the goal toward which to aspire, he should 
not hesitate; lie can only have recourse to a system of 
ethics which does not seek the value of moral endeavor 
in the object to which it is directed, but in the moral 
inclinations, in the activity of the will itself. This ideal 
standpoint seems to have found a clear expression in the 
ethical system of Herbart which, as the doctrine of the 
ethical ideas, has been developed upon the foundation 
obtained through Kant. 

The Grandeur of Herbart's System is Acknowledged 
even by Those who Oppose It — This ethics excludes 
entirely all relative estimation of worth, i.e., all estima- 
tion which values the will for the sake of some desired 
effect, for the sake of some gain. Even the opposers of 
the Herbartian ethics willingly recognizes its grandeur. 
A system of ethics, they say, which is undertaken with 
pure devotion to the nature of its problems, which 
regards the morally beautiful as the highest, sublimest, 
and noblest end — an ethics which, like that of Plato, 
cannot conceive how any one can behold the morally 
beautiful without being deeply moved and inspired, 
which regards it as a matter of course, that that which 
is morally beautiful will receive the absolute approval of 
all — such an ethics will always attract and hold truly 
ethical minds, despite all differences of presentation and 
all deviations in fundamental views. On account of its 
ideal character it will always exercise its power of attrac- 
tion, especially upon educators who desire to pursue an 



30 Out I lues of Pedagogics, 

ideal educational purpose. It will not fail to be of 
assistance to any one who desires to sketch an ethical 
ideal that can serve the educator as a supreme educa- 
tional purpose — an ideal whose realization in the pupil 
must be his chief task. 

Outlines of Herbartian Ethics.— Neither knowledge, 
nor goods, nor external actions are good in themselves, 
but only a good will. It must be the person's own will, 
developed by insight into the absolutely binding validity 
of the moral law or the absolute beauty of the moral 
ideal. The Herbartian ethics sketches five of these 
ethical ideas: the idea of inner freedom, the idea of 
completeness (efficiency of the will), the idea of good- 
will, the idea of rights, and the idea of equity. The 
idea of mner freedom signifies the harmony of the ac- 
tivity of the will with the practical insight, or conscience. 
The individual will must correspond exactly to the latter, 
and execute whatever it presents. The idea of com- 
pleteness or of the efficiency of the will demands the 
many-sidedness, energy, concentration, and the progress 
of the will. The idea of goodtvill manifests itself in 
unselfish devotion to the welfare and a practical sympa- 
thy for the woe of others. The idea of rights culmi- 
nates in the demand to avoid strife (mutual recognition 
of rights). Finally, the idea of equity looks to the im- 
partial adjustment of the relations between human right 
and wrong. These ideas, combined in the unity of 
consciousness, constitute in their totality the ideal per- 
sonality. This ideal consists, therefore, of a number of 
model '^ pictures of the will," which possess an absolute 
value, and are independent of all desires. If they not 
only appeal isolatedly in a human being, but permeate 
every state of his mind and heart, if they determine hi§ 



The Supreme Purpose of Education, 31 

guiding principles and the actions that proceed from 
them, then he is an embodiment of the ideal personality. 
Then the same man of character is to be recognized in 
every outward manifestation, and in all the walks of life. 
Wherever this constant harmony of the individual with 
the totality of ethical ideas appears, we speak of " moral 
strength of character.'^ AVherever the intellectual life 
of man develops to a strong personal character in which 
the rational, the noble, the beautiful, and the moral — 
in general the logical, aesthetic, and moral activity — 
triumphs over the merely mechanical processes in the 
human soul, then the highest and most significant stage 
of human educability is revealed. 

Ethical Culture of the Will the Highest Purpose of 
Education. — If Kant and Herbart are right in claiming 
that the will is the proper object of all ethical valuation, 
it certainly follows that the ethical culture of the will 
must he regarded as the highest jnmyose of education. 
If one aims to cultivate a good, constant will in the 
pupil, the absolute value of the educational end which 
he has in view cannot be questioned. This aim is re- 
vealed to us, furthermore, by an idealistic ethics which 
in general presents the highest necessary and universal 
purpose that should actuate human beings. It also 
furnishes theoretical pedagogics with its highest point 
of view in considering the question of the pupil's des- 
tiny. From the empirical idea of education we had al- 
ready determined that a permanent form must be cre- 
ated in the inner life of the pupil; we now know upon 
the grounds of ethics what the nature of this mental 
form shall be. We can, therefore, place the following 
proposition at the head of our final conclusions : The 
educator should so educate his piipil that his futif*'^ 



32 Outlines of Pedagogics, 

personality luill he in keeping luitli the ideal human 
personality. 

Moral Strength of Character the End Aimed at.— 
The aim of moral training, then, is nothing less than to 
make the ideas of the right and the good, in all their 
sharpness and purity, the proper objects of the will, and 
to render the real inmost content of the character, the 
essence of the personality, capable of self-determination 
in accordance with these ideas and. without regard to 
any other possible purposes. But the aim of education 
appears to be reached when the personality is constantly 
intent upon bringing its actual volition into correspond- 
ence with the ideal activity of the will, when it un- 
interruptedly inspects its own volitional acts for the 
purpose of determining whether they were made to ac- 
cord with the moral ideas out of pure love for morality, 
and whether as much morality v/as always willed and 
practised as the ideals demanded, or permitted. 

Hence the question of the imity of the educational 
aims is to be answered by referring to the ethical ideal 
of human personality that should be attained in the 
pupil. The doctrine of moral personality is the doctrine 
of the education of man within human society. 

Moral Characters the Elevating Forces of Society. — 
Every individual whom the systematic efforts of the 
educator have brought near to the ideal of personality, 
who has learned to recognize the practical ethical ideas 
as the standards that should determine his inclina- 
tions and his actions, will be able with this preparation 
to participate best in bringing about the realization of 
the moral aims that are to be attained* by the broader 
circles of society. Thus equipped he will take part most 
energetically in the moral elevation of human society, 



The Supreme Purpose of Education. 33 

so that the demands of morality rather than the maxims 
of wisdom shall be recognized. 

The Present Moral Status of Society no Model for 
the Educator. — The child that has been educated in 
accordance with ethical standards, upon entering the 
circle of adult life, will of course often find himself at vari- 
ance with the views which prevail there; for the motives 
of the larger or smaller circles of society are only too 
often determined not by ideal, but by very material 
points of view. But is it to be regarded as a disad- 
vantage if the pupil meets such egoistical tendencies 
with the power of a better insight and the courage of 
better convictions ? How is society to be led to higher 
aims otherwise than by the gradual increase of the 
number of individuals who do not bend and become 
subservient to the dominant tendencies of the mass 
without further thought, but who, on the contrary, seek 
to suppress them whenever they rest upon immoral 
motives ? He who takes the actual moral status of 
society as a model upon which to construct his educa- 
tional ideal will ha,ve to include in the bargain a great 
deal that is immoral beside the moral; for the existing 
moral condition of a people only signifies a certain tem- 
porary stage of development that is constantly chang- 
ing. He who seeks absolute standards may, indeed, 
regard the moral status of society from a descriptive 
point of view; he may explain it and define it in all its 
phases, but he can only make use of it as a foundation 
upon which to demonstrate the necessity of higher 
standards and ideals that are independent of all fluctua- 
tions. These ideals, that are valid for both individual 
and society, furnish the absolute standards as opposed to 



34 Outlines of Pedagogics. 

the relative standards that have developed in the exist- 
ing custom. 

The Struggle for a Common Ethical Ideal Unites the 
Individual and Society.— Everything depends upon 
whether one is convinced that the human race may be 
led up to higher aims. He who will do this must not 
place these aims too low. However flatteringly lesser 
aims, such as usefulness in human society, happiness, 
etc., recommend themselves to the great mass, moral 
elasticity will disappear if an ideal does not prevail that 
is ardently grasped by all, and which both the indi- 
vidual and the entire body of society should strive to 
attain with the application of all their energies and 
means. Society would then find itself dissolved into a 
mass of egoists, striving to overreach one another in 
the mutual contest, and seeking gratification as the 
highest aim of earthly life. The harmonizing centre 
for both the individual and society can only consist in 
the struggle after a common supreme aim which all 
recognize as the true purpose ; otherwise moral torpid- 
ness will render both the individual and society incapa- 
ble of all higher inspiration, and cut off all possibility 
of cultivating pure moral characters and noble, morally 
elevated communities. 



Part II. 

THEORY OF THE MEANS OF EDUCATION 
(METHODOLOGY). 



GENERAL OUTLINES OF METHODOLOGY, 

The Possibility of Education Depends on Psycho- 
logical Demonstration. — After an educational aim of 
absolute value has been established and placed at the 
head of the entire system, our attention is next to be 
directed to the possibility of realizing this aim. 

In fact, one of the first thoughts which occurs to us 
in this connection is that the belief in a moral ordering 
of the world vouches for the possibility of building 
moral character; but if, on the other hand, this belief 
is confirmed by a scientific foundation, if the possibility 
of influencing the youthful mind is psychologically 
demonstrated, the activity of the educator should, with- 
out doubt, gain greater stability and inherent certainty. 

Investigation of the Human Mind not the Only 
Point to be Considered. — But the question as to the 

35 



36 Outlines of Pedagogics. 

possibiUty of improvement does not depend alone upon 
the inyestigation of the human mind, but also directly 
upon the view of the world that has been developed by 
the individual or by some social body. If the crude 
forms of a false determinism exclude the fundamental 
pedagogical conception of the educability of the child, 
or if certain philosophical systems cannot support this 
conception without contradicting their own principles 
(as, for example, the systems of non-determinism which 
declare the will to be free in the sense that it is able to 
pursue a course which is in direct opposition to deter- 
mining causes), the incompatibility of such views with 
pedagogical views is very apparent. If the possibility 
of a casual relation between the educator and the edu- 
cated is entirely excluded, if the intellectual states as 
the pupil are regarded as either permanently deter- 
mined from the beginning, or voluntarily changeable at 
any moment, education must appear as an impossibility 
and every attempt to educate as vain. 

Education Has no Unbounded Power over the Pupil. 
— The opposite extreme finds expression in the words 
of Fichte : " If you would have any influence over man 
you must do more than merely talk to him ; you must 
make him — make him so that it is impossible for him 
to will otherwise than you wish him to will." This 
reminds us of the view of Helvetius, who ascribed to 
education an unbounded power over the pupil. Ac- 
cording to his theory the pupil is entirely the product 
of the effects which education produces upon him. 
Even his volition, according to Helvetius, is entirely 
determined by it. Therefore, if education is active in 
the right way, the pupil must become whatever it aims 
to make of him. It would be fortunate for the edu- 



General Outlines of Methodology, 37 

cator if this were true, if lie could assure himself that 
the soul of the jDupil is a t alula rasa upon which he 
might write whatever his highest educational ideal de- 
mands, or if he could fashion it as easily as soft wax 
can be moulded in the hands of the sculptor. But the 
old saying : '' N'on ex quo vis ligno fit Mercurius " (Not 
every wood is fit to make a Mercury) would be suffi- 
cient to shake his confidence. Experience could give 
him still further warning, and jorevent him from thus 
overestimating the power of education. 

A Psychology that Does not Contradict Experience 
the Safest Basis. — However, it is without doubt to be 
preferred that the educator overestimate his power over 
the pupil than underestimate it. But in considering 
the possibility, extent and limit of education, he will 
always be inclined to shift hither and thither, prefer- 
ring now this view, now that, as long as he does not 
appeal to jjsychology for information upon the funda- 
mental question that is of importance to education, 
namely, the question concerning the intellectual con- 
stitution or the mental capacities of man. Of course, 
he cannot expect a concordant answer from all psycholo- 
gists; and in view of the obscurity which still prevails 
in this sphere, the different views as to the nature of 
the humian soul and the extraordinary difficulty with 
which the empirical method of investigation meets, an 
absolutely indubitable explanation can hardly be ex- 
pected. On the other hand, the educator may rely 
upon a psychology that does not contradict emjDirical 
facts, but which demonstrates the possibility of influ- 
encing the formation of the youthful mind so plainly 
that he can establish his methods with confidence and 
expect success. 



38 Outlines of Pedagogics, 

Relation between Instruction and Training. — Let 

us now ask : What ways and means are offered the edu- 
cator for advancing the pupil toward the supreme end 
of education? The answer usually comprehends two 
means, training and instruction. This distinction re- 
sults naturally. The characteristic feature of instruc- 
tion lies in the fact that teacher and pupil are engaged 
in common upon a third object, while training deals 
directly with the pupil/ To the latter, therefore, has 
been ascribed the task of directly influencing the pupil 
on the side of the formation of character. 

Training is Habituation to a Fixed Order of Life. — 
Training educates the pupil to fear God, to obey and to 
speak the truth; it accustoms him to reserve his power 
and to practise self-denial. It is said that the strongest 
motives that actuate the will arise from love and desire; 
hence the observation, direction, and animation of the 
child^s inclinations belong to the most important offices 
of the educator. The child is also dependent upon ex- 
ample in the development and purification of his feel- 

^ " Uuterricht " and " Zucht " correspond very closely to tlie 
English terms, "Instruction" and "Training." It is well to 
bear in mind that a sharp distinction is made in the use of the 
German terms, " Erziehung," " Unterricht," "Zucht," and "Re- 
gierung " — a distinction which of course must here be transferred 
to the corresponding English terms, Education, Instruction, 
Training, Government. The latter, therefore, should always be 
understood in the sense indicated by the text. (See also foot- 
note, page 23.) "Zucht" has recently been rendered "Disci- 
pline"; although there can be little objection to the philologi- 
cally, its use in this sense is likely to create confusion owing to 
the fact that the German writers distinguish sharply between 
** Disciplin " and " Zucht." In either language " Discipline " is 
far too ambiguous. — J"s. 



General Outlines of Methodology. 39 

ings. The early habituation to a fixed order of life, to 
a re2:ulated actiyity, vouchsafes for advancement and 
abundant blessings ; here again the personal example of 
the teacher exerts a deep influence. In this manner a 
foundation of common vie^^s and moral convictions is 
imperceptibly laid, not by means of doctrines or ideas^ 
but by means of the life itself, and the personal inter- 
course between the teacher and the pupil. Accordingly, 
the personality of the educator proves to be the most 
effective element in the moral training of the youth. 
By this same means also Plato solved the much-dis- 
cussed question of the educability of the youth thus: 
" Virtue can only be taught by virtue, in that the living 
exemplification of it awakens love and the desire to 
emulate."'' If one were to ascribe everything to personal 
infltience, however, he would have to sketch an ideal 
picture of the educator and perfect a catechism of 
directions as to how the teacher must be constituted in 
order to do justice to his high office. In fact, not a 
few pedagogical works contain delineations of this kind, 
which hold before the educator, as it were, a sort of 
mirror in order that he may recognize of what he stands 
in need, and what he must acquire, in order to be able 
to discharge the duties of his calling. 

Instruction not a Mere Preparation for Material 
Happiness. — Vv'herever this conception predominates 
and everything is left to the direct personal influence of 
the educator upon the pupil, it is self-evident that the 
second-mentioned means of education — instruction — 
will remain in the background. Apart from the re- 
ligioijs instruction, which by virtue of its very content 
is expected to exert an influence upon the will and dis- 
position of the pupil, the difrerent subjects of instruc- 



40 Outlines of Pedagogics, 

tion pursue an independent end, namely, the accumu- 
lation of a definite amount of knowledge and facility, 
in order that the pupil may be able to provide for him- 
self in the future. This last view corresponds to a 
widespread conception among families. How often the 
teacher is regarded not as an educator, but merely as a 
school-keeper. How often the notion is directly ex- 
pressed: We — that is, the parents, the families — ^pro- 
vide for the education ; you — that is, the teachers, the 
schools— provide for the instruction. Family and school, 
training and instruction, according to this view, appear 
to be entirely disconnected factors, each one of which 
pursues its own independent task. 

The Aim of Instruction must be Subordinate to and 
in Harmony with the Aim of Education. — But such 
a conception is untenable from the standpoint of scien- 
tific pedagogics; for how can instruction be regarded as 
a means for the attainment of the supreme end of edu- 
cation if it serves no other purpose than that of prepar- 
ing the child for usefulness in life ? If this is the only 
business of instruction, one does not need to trouble 
himself at all as to whether it will make others better 
or worse. In this case, that schoolmaster will be in 
the greatest demand who can place the pupil most surely 
and pleasantly in possession of the desired attainments. 
But such instruction does not accord with the concep- 
tion of education. It has no connection whatever with 
moral training. This connection can only be brought 
about by placing the two means of education in relation 
to the supreme educational end. If one makes prepara- 
tion for usefulness in life, i.e., utility, the purpose of 
instruction, he places the utilitarian principle on the 
same level with the ethical ; that which has a relative 



General Outlines of Methodology, 41 

value is placed beside tliat which has an absolute value. 
All development of mental power and facility in acqui- 
sition, every accomplishment according to their very 
nature, can enter just as well into the service of im- 
morality as of morality. In the second case one must 
attribute a certain value to the instruction that devel- 
oped these facilities; in the first case it must be denied* 
Hence, if one were to cultivate a knowledge of the use- 
ful and the power to apply it merely for their own sake, 
he would always be uncertain as to whether he served a 
worthy or objectionable end. We are, therefore, com- 
pelled to subordinate the aim of instruction to the 
supreme aim of education as required by ethics, and 
thus to place instruction by the side of training as an 
equally qualified factor. 

Formation of a Moral-religious Character the Chief 
Aim. — Education and instruction must both make it 
their chief aim gradually to develop a system of ethical 
maxims in the pupil. These ethical maxims should 
comprehend the entire volitional activity, and be united 
and apperceived by certain chief universal principles, 
just as the individual concept is embraced and apper- 
ceived by the general concept. When this is the case the 
inner life of man receives that uniform stamp which we 
distinguish as a moral-religious character. In such a 
character one circle of thought is the supreme law-giver. 
This is the moral-religious circle of thought which 
asserts itself not only now and then on esjDecially 
ceremonial occasions, but everywhere and at all times, 
which, as an invisible, apperceiviug force, guides the 
will, the inclinations, and the actions. 

Summary. — In conclusion, we may sum up the means 
of education in the following- outline: — 



42 Outlines of Pedagogics, 

METHODOLOGY. 

I. Theory of Instruction. (Didactics.) 

(a) General Didactics: 

(1) The aim of instruction in general. 

(2) The choice, 

(3) The arrangement 

(connection), 

(4) The treatment, 
{p) Bipedal Didactics which treats of: 

(1) The aim of the separate branches of 
instruction in their relation to 
the general aim of instruction. 



of the material 
for instruc- 
tion. 



(2) The choice, 

(3) The arrangement 

(connection), 

(4) The treatment, . 



of the material 
for instruc- 
tion in each 
single branch. 



II. Theory of Guidance. (Hodegetics.) 

{a) Theory of Moral Training. 
{b\ Theory of GoYernment. 



The Aim of Instruction. 43 

I THE AIM OF INSTRUCTION. 

Instruction Must Educate. — According to Kant^ the 
normal education of man should not begin directly with 
the improYement of the morals, but with the metamor- 
phosis of the sentiments and with the foundation of 
the character. Herbart, who attaches the chief impor- 
tance to the development of the circle of thought, agrees 
with this view. And why should instruction not edu- 
cate, since all wishes, desires, purposes, and resolutions 
proceed from the circle of thought — in fact, were 
thoughts originally — and since, furthermore, their 
energy is entirely depe^ident upon the help or hinder- 
ance which they experience among the other thoughts? 

But if the formation of moral character, the cultiya- 
tion of virtue, is to be placed as the aim at the head of 
the educational system, how is the aim of instruction 
to be formulated ? 

That which Instruction Gives must Serve the For- 
mation of a Moral-religious Character. —If it is true 
that the worth of man is founded not upon his knowl- 
edge, but upon his will, all learning must bear some 
relation to the end of education, so that it shall be of 
some value to the future character of the pupil, in so 
far as his will is elevated, invigorated, and rendered effi- 
cient. Accordingly, all knowledge and power that are 
imparted by an educative instruction (i.e., instruction 
that makes for character) must, at the same time, di- 
rectly or indirectly, serve the formation of the moral- 
relio-ious character. 



44 Outlines of Pedagogics. 

The aim of 'instruction, accordingly, coincides directly 
with the aim of the formation of character. 

Instruction Forms the Circle of Thought. — But in 
order that the educator may see how this is possible, 
how the will may be influenced by instruction, psychol- 
ogy must give some more exact information as to the 
nature and origin of the loill. It must be shown under 
what conditions the activity of the will is developed 
from the circle of thought. The educator aims to form 
the pupiFs circle of thought by means of instruction, in 
order thus to get control of the will, i.e., in order to 
give it a moral tendency as prescribed by the educa- 
tional aim. It must be shown, therefore, how this is 
possible. This is the task of the following brief out- 
lines. 

Ideas, Feelings, and Desires are Closely Connected* 
— There are three chief forms of the ^^sychical life, rep- 
resentation,^ feeling (the emotional life), and aspira- 
tion or desire. These are class conceptions under 
which the various phenomena of the psychical life may 
be comprehended conveniently and synoptically. They 
designate neither three souls, three faculties, nor three 
isolated powers of the soul. 

Willing Originates from and is Dependent on Knowl- 
edge. — The representations constitute the elements of 
the psychical life. Feelings and desires are special 
modifications that result from the conjunction of cer- 
tain representations in consciousness. Feelings and 
desires are not independent entities that exist apart 



^ Eepreseutation ('* Vorstellen ") includes all the psychical 
states that represent to the consciousness, as it were, some con- 
tent, such as a sensation, perception, idea, concept, etc. — T's. 



The Aim of Instnidion. 45 

from the representations or ideas. The ideas, feelings, 
and desires of a human being are very closely connected.. 
Especially is there no volition independent of psychicah 
representation, i.e., external to the mass of ideas or 
external to knowing. It is true that we find ideas in 
the inner life with which no feelings, no desires are 
associated; hut we never find feelings and desires that 
do not stand in connection with certain ideas or sensa- 
tions, although the latter may be more or less obscure. 
Separated from all ideas and conceived of as isolated, 
the will is nothing. The activity of the will is rooted 
in and proceeds from the mass of thoughts. Volition is 
a condition into which the ideas are brought by some 
definite cause or occasion. If this is true, instruction 
may also require power; it also influences the will by 
the development and manipulation of the mass of ideas. 
Thus the aim of education coincides, harmonizes with 
the aim of instruction; the one proceeds from the other. 
Instruction must so form the circle of thought that 
volitional activity will develon from it. 

Not all Knowing Produces Willing. — But how does 
this take place ? Xot all knowledge produces volition. 
The latter is a mental activity of a peculiar kind, a new 
starting-point in the development of the activity of the 
soul. Volition, it is true, has its roots in the circle of 
thought, but it only proceeds from the latter under cer- 
tain conditions. AYhat are these conditions ? 

Knowledge must Become a Living Power. — Knowl- 
edge is frequently only a dormant store of facts that are 
in themselves apathetic; in other words, it is merely a 
fund of finished, quite clear ideas. As long as this 
is the case no volitional activity can be develoj^ed from 
it. If volition is to j^roceed from this knowledge it 



46 Outlines of Pedagogics, 

cannot remain snch an inanimate fund; on the con- 
trary, mere knowing mnst be effected in a twofold way: 
the knowledge mnst penetrate into the sphere of the 
disposition — (1) as something that is felt; (2) as some- 
thing enlivening. When this is the case, then that men- 
tal condition which we call interest is present. 

Instruction must Aim at the Development of In- 
terest. — The aim of instr miction may accordingly be 
defined as the training of the circle of thought by 
means of the interest, so as to render it capable of voli- 
tion. (Knowledge — interest — volition.) The interest 
should not be one-sided; otherwise onesidedness of the 
personality ensues — a condition that is at variance with 
genuine morality. The latter demands that a strong 
personal character shall cultivate a many-sided interest* 
This many-sidedness comprises six classes of interests, 
which may be divided into two groups of three each. 
"We arrive at this classification by means of the follow- 
ing considerations : 

The human intellect places itself, so to speak, before 
the objects with which it is occupied, and views them as 
something foreign to itself; or it grasps them just as it 
conceives of itself, as members of the world, of its 
world, and thus stands in muttial intercourse with them. 
To the mind, accordingly, they are either objects of 
knoicledge or intercourse. 

Interest of Knowledge and Intercourse. — In the first 
case, we have to deal in part with the conception and 
observation of objects in their manifoldness (empirical 
interest), in part with the knowledge of their mutual 
dependency and with a reflective examination of the 
same (speculative interest), in part with a judgment of 
them in accordance with the standards of the good and 



The Aim of Instruct ion. 47 

beautiful (sesthetio interest). In the second case we have 
to do with the imthial intercourse or association either 
with animate beings or v/ith beings which we conceive 
of as possessed of souls, ^q either devote ourselves to 
them as individual beings with whom we are in har- 
mony, in whose weal and woe we participate, and in 
whose conditions we place ourselves (sympathetic in- 
terest), or we turn our interest to the entire body and 
share and live through its fortunes (social interest). 
But the feeling of dependence, of impotency, which we 
have when placed face to face with destiny and the 
Incomprehensible, the longing for a balancing of the 
relations between the actual and the ideal, produce the 
religious interest. 

INTEREST. 

I. As Objective Knowledge. 

1. Theoretical knowledge. 

{a) Of nature. 

Empirical interest. 
ijb) Of conceptions. 

Speculative interest. 

2. Practical valuation of the beautiful and the 

good. 

^^sthetic interest. 
II. As Subjective Interest. 

1. In mankind. 

(a) In the individual. 

Sympathetic interest. 
{h) In the entire body. 

Social interest. 

2. In God. 

Religious interest. 



4^ Outlines of Pedagogics, 

Instruction must Aim to Give the Will a Moral 
Tendency.— The aim of instruction, therefore, is not the 
production of a many-sided knowledge, but of a many- 
sided interest. At the same time those facts of knowl- 
edge and those facilities of which the pupil has future 
need in the execution and furtherance of the practical 
purposes of his life, fall to him of themselves; yet utili- 
tarian considerations should never stand in the fore- 
ground. The genuine, direct interest should never be 
repressed by an indirect interest. At the same time, 
the instruction must take care that the idea of the good 
retain command in the inner life of the pupil, that it 
retain its prominence in the midst of the other contents 
of consciousness. Instruction, therefore, must give the 
will the moral tendency; the scholar should learn to 
discriminate between possessions according to their true 
value; he should see that it is just the sensual pleasures 
and possessions that are most sought, but of the least 
value; he should learn to regard mental possessions as 
of the most w^orth, and to recognize that the want of 
that most valuable of all possessions — a good conscience 
— destroys the value of all others. 

The Highest Aim of Instruction. — Hence the effect 
of instruction is truly educative when it — 

1. Produces a deeply-rooted, many-sided, permanent 
interest in the pupil; 

2. When it insures the necessary energy for the moral- 
religious interest, and at the same time — 

3. Vouches for the unity of the consciousness as the 
basis for the development of a strong personal character. 

This is the highest aim of instruction when conceived 
of as in. the service of the formation of character. 



The Selection of the Subject-Matter of Instruction. 49 



THE SELECTION OF THE SUBJECT-MATTER OF 
INSTRUCTION. 

Only that which will Cultivate a Direct Interest 
should Form the Subject-matter. — Without doubt the 
next most imj)ortant question for him who aim's to 
educate through instruction, i.e., to create an interest 
is what material or what ideas shall be introduced to 
the youthful mind ? The gi'eat question of the selection 
of suhject-matter takes a prominent place in didactic 
considerations. In undertaking the selection of subject- 
matter we must proceed from our aim, the awakening of 
the many-sided interest, in order to obtain a scientifically 
established series. The first maxim may be formulated 
as follows: Only that should be subject-matter of in- 
struction which is able to awaken and chain the interest 
of the scholars. Only such material should be chosen 
as must necessarily awaken a spontaneous, j^ermanent 
interest in every child of normal mental endowments. 
The interest only has a real value for education when it 
arises spontaneously in the pupil, accompanies him 
through his school-life as a permanent mental activity, 
and still inspires him after his school-years as a vital 
power that will always augment. But the preliminary 
psychological condition that must characterize all ideas 
capable of producing interest upon entering the circle 
of thought is similarity; there must be a close afiinity 
between them and other ideas that are already possessed, 
and that are expecting them, as it Avere. This condition 



50 Outlines of Pedagogics. 

requires the most exact consideration of each particular 
stage of apperception. This is a demand which Goethe 
expressed in the words: "One could be genuinely 
' aesthetic-didactic ' if he could pass with his scholars 
before all that is worth feeling, or if he could bring it 
before them exactly at the moment in which it culmi- 
nates, and when they are most highly sensitive/^ 

Let us compare this with another passage from 
Goethe : " The human mind receives nothing which 
does not suit it." Here we are directed to select the 
mental nourishment exactly in accordance with the ex- 
isting capacity of the child^s mind to receive and digest 
it — a fundamental principle that has long since been 
applied in the sphere of physical training. 

Only that which Corresponds to the Power of Com- 
prehension can Interest.— As the first condition for the 
selection of material, we may grant the following prop- 
osition: Only that material which corresponds to the 
child^s power of comprehension, i.e., to his particular 
stage of apperception, will be able to excite a deeply- 
rooted, lasting interest in him. But this provision 
alone does not suffice; for one might suppose that in 
order to select suitable material he has but to collect 
from the entire literature of the world, from the cultural 
attainments which the various peoples of the earth 
have stored up, all that is exactly suited to the needs 
of an educative instruction. Accordingly, if one is 
merely intent upon selecting that which is adapted to 
the child's power of comprehension, Greek and Eoman 
ingredients would be found beside Egyptian and Chinese, 
modern elements beside the antique, and national beside 
the foreign. 

Th^ Present Culture Standpoint of the People must 



The Selection of the Subject -Matter of Instruction. 51 

also be Considered. — Apart from the fact that this 
method of procedure would result in a remarkably 
miscellaneous collection, it would also work in direct 
opposition to a second principle that is included in the 
conception of the moral character. At some future 
time the pupil must be able to be active in life; he 
must participate self -actively in the tasks which the 
present places upon him. Tliis present, in fact, is not 
that of any people whatsoever; it is the present of liis 
people — at least as long as mankind is still divided into 
a number of individaally different nations. But in 
order to be able to take an independent part in the 
modern activity of his people, he must first learn to 
grasp this present itself properly in all its tendencies. 
Hence arises the second requirement for the educator: 
Observe the present cultural standpoint of the people 
and seek to have a right understanding of' it in all its 
phases developed in the pupil, in order that he may 
learn to find for himself that sphere of labor which he 
intends to enter as a moral personalty. 

The Present too Complicated to be Comprehended 
by the Child. — This demand would also be quite right 
of the first mentioned requirement that has just been 
established, and which enjoins that the child^s power of 
comprehension be taken into consideration, did not run 
directly in opposition to it. For the present of a culti- 
vated people — and only such a people can be taken into 
account here — presents such complicated relations that 
it would be utterly absurd to attempt to nourish the 
child's intellect upon it. One would very soon find that 
the interest of the child can never develop on material 
which contains too many difficulties, because of a com- 
plicatedness that the work of centuries has wrought. 



5 2 Outlines of Pedagogics . 

This would endanger the result of instruction from the 
beginning, and work in direct opposition to its aim. 

The Present made Clear by the Past Let us now 

recollect that the present rests upon the past ; that he 
who desires to effect some lasting good for the future 
must join it on to the present, which is to be understood 
alone through the past. 

The Material to ba Sought in the Development of 
Naional Civilization. — These considerations turn us 
back from the complicated relations of the present that 
are more difficult to grasp, to past times that are more 
simple, more easily understood and, at the same time, 
more easily adaptable to the conceptive power of the 
voung mind. From this standpoint the material for 
the educative instruction should be sought in the devel- 
opment of the national culture, which is to be followed 
in its chief eras. It should be presented from its very 
beginnings, i.e., from the point at which a constant 
progress is apparent, up to the present. This principle, 
which agreeably to its content we may call the principle 
of historical culture, also harmonizes, as we shall see at 
once, with the ipsychological requirement that the sub- 
ject-matter in each case correspond to the child^s stage 
of apperception. The material and the formal points 
of view coincide. A people does not stand at once upon 
a definite height of culture; centuries of zealous and 
unwearied labor are necessary before the height can be 
reached. It must climb up from lower to ever higher 
stages; it must pass from simpler to ever more com- 
plicated relations in order to satisfy the bent for im- 
provement and the realization of the kingdom of God 
upon earth. And the individual, the same as the people^ 
rises in his development from lower to ever higher 



The Selection of the Subject-Matter of Instruction, 53 

stages^ from simpler to ever riclier mental contents, if 
only his ideal tendency be not smothered by material 
sensuality or by the feeling that he has already attained 
a fine height. Thus we must accept on the one hand 
historical, on the other hand indiviclucil, stages of devel- 
opment or apperception. It is obvious that if the two 
series — the historical, with its various cultural materials, 
and the personal, with its manifold ideas, wishes, and 
desires— can be brought successfully and accurately into 
harmony with each other, one can undoubtedly get con- 
trol of the scholar's interest, because by this means the 
psychological conditions would be established. The 
development of the individual is nourished on the 
development of the wliole. Whenever a subject can 
claim the height of interest, it enters into the circle of 
thought; being expected, it is welcome, and the direct 
interest makes its appearance provided the educator 
possesses the necessary art of instruction. As a matter 
of course, the most careful select i.on of material is use- 
less when there is a lack of skill. But this careful 
selection of subject-matter will give the educator un- 
suspected assistance as soon as he understands it. How 
often the teacher toils over less worthy material, and 
the interest refuses to appear in the youthful soul. 
Conversely, what a relief for the teacher whenever the 
material with which he is occupied is congenial to the 
child's mind, when it enters just at the moment it is 
actually expected and is greeted as a welcome guest in 
whom one becomes more and more interested. 

The Analogy between Individual and the General 
Development of Mankind Pointed Out by Great Think- 
ers. — We find that this idea of the analogy between the^ 
individual and general development of humanity is a 



54 Outlines of Pedagogics. 

common possession of the best and most noted intel- 
lects. It appears, for example, in the works of the lit- 
erary heroes Lessing, Herder, Goethe, and Schiller; with 
the philosophers Kant, Eichte, Schelling, Hegel, Comte; 
with the theologians Clement of Alexandria, Augustine, 
Schleiermacher; with the Darwinists Huxley and Spen- 
cer; with the classical philologists F. A. Wolf, Nietham- 
mer, Dissen, Llibker; with the pedagogs Rousseau, Pes- 
talozzi, Froebel, Diesterweg, Herbart, Ziller, and others. 

From the large number of voices let me select but 
two, Goethe and Kant. The former said: "Although 
the world in general advances, the youth must always 
start again from the beginning and, as an individual, 
traverse the epochs of the world^s culture." The latter 
points out that the education of the individual should 
imitate the culture of mankind in general, as developed 
in its various generations. 

The National Life must be Analyzed Historically. — 
This thought of Kant^s and Goethe's only needs to be 
cleared from its hyperbolic presentation and brought 
into harmony with the conditions of instruction. One 
cannot undertake to impart a Avorld culture, for no one 
knows where it is to be had, but only to provide whole- 
some and digestible nourishment for the pupil's interest 
by introducing him to the development of the national 
life. Hence we must undertake an analysis of the na- 
tional circle of thought; this alone is the determinative 
factor in the organization of the material for an edu- 
cative instruction. The series of subject-matter for the 
educative instruction is to be drawn first of all from 
the development of the national culture. At the same 
time the opportunity will offer itself for many a glance 



The Selection of the Subject -h4atter of histniction. 55 

at tlie history of other nations in so far as their fortunes 
are connected with those of the fatherland. 

The Cream of the Historical Epochs must Con- 
stitute the Subject-matter. — The cream of these pe- 
riods of development, as it is preserved in science and 
art, constitutes the subject-matter of an educative in- 
struction. The cliief content of these historical series 
must now be condensed, concentrated, embraced under 
typical but at the same time classical forms, and offered 
as nourishment for the development of the youthful 
mind. In this connection it is well to note that these 
types are not to be presented in broken, disconnected 
pieces or bits, but in large, connected masses. Moral 
power is the effect of large, unbroken masses of thought; 
in these alone can a strong interest be developed. A 
great deal will have been gained as soon as the atten- 
tion of the educator has been drawn from the vague and 
scanty materials of instruction to the great classical ma- 
terials, and his eye been opened to their buoyant didactic 
power. 

The Task of Selecting the Subject-matter.— This 
will have been accomplished as soon as he conforms to 
a scheme for the selection of material, which, upon the 
ground of the preceding investigations, we may sum up 
in the following propositions. The choice of material 
for the educative instruction presupposes a tw^ofold pre- 
liminary work. 

1. The 'psy etiological luorh. Its task is to establish the 
stages of development of the individual mind from both 
the theoretical and the practical standpoints. 

2. The liistorical i^liilosoptiical ivoric. Its task is 
clearly to define and sum up the chief eras in the his- 
torical development of the people. 



56 Outlines of Pedagogics, 

These two preliminary tasks are then succeeded by — 

3. The luork of tlie pedagog. Both series — the indi- 
vidual and the general — must be brought into harmony 
with one another. The individual mind must traverse 
the entire historical development in a rapid, concen- 
trated manner by means of the material which the na- 
tional growth has produced. The individual must thus 
be prepared, as a moral character, to comprehend at 
some future time the height which the present has 
reached, and to take part independently in its tasks, 
however modest his position in life. 

In this way the educator must endeavor to establish 
a complete regularity in the succession of the subject- 
matter which corresponds to all requirements. This 
natural and unbroken succession of material is the most 
radical means for rendering instruction properly efficient, 
and for freeing the curriculum from all caprice in the 
choice of matter. 

Rules to be Observed. — At the same time the edu- 
cator must always keep the following propositions in 
mind: 

1. The development of the national culture can only 
produce permanent interest in the developing human 
being, in so far as it is presented and grasped in the 
light of the ethical judgment. For this reason we 
choose the chronological ascent from the older and sim- 
pler to the newer, more complicated stages and relations. 

2. Classical presentations that are accessible to the 
youth must form the basis of these studies. Periods that 
no master described, whose spirit no poet breathed, are 
of little value to education (Herbart). Only classical 
presentations invite the pupil to return to the treasures 
that never cease to reward him, and that fill him with 



The Selection of the Subject-Matt er of Instruction. 57 

interest and inspiration. It is only throngh sucli sonrces 
that the past speaks to the present with a clear, distinct 
voice. 

3. Large, entire, and connected portions of a subject 
are alone able to arouse a sufficiently deep interest in 
the youthful mind, to keep it permanently on the alert, 
and thus to effect the formation of character. 

We may close this subject with a brief summary. 
The developing human being can only take an interest 
in and comprehend the groiutli of his people; the pupil 
can only be brought gradually to an understanding of 
the present and its tasks, and his own method of thought 
be established at the same time by successive absorption 
in the chief stages of the national progress of the past, 
in so far as they are at hand in classical presentations. 
This ascending series of the cliief historical stages can 
rely upon a corresponding series of stages in the develop- 
ment of the inner life of the pupil, and hence upon his 
deepest interest. 

It should, therefore, be the first aim of instruction to 
make a selection of material in accordance with the his- 
torical principle (stages of culture or culture epochs).' 

^ See also the supplementary remarks beginning on page 



5 3 Outlines of Pedagogics » 



ARRANGEMENT (CONNECTION) OF MATERIAL 
FOR INSTRUCTION.— GENERAL OUTLINE. 



& 



As Many Subjects as Culture Epochs — Followin 
the principle that has just been established for the 
selection of matter, a thorough analysis of the entire 
material for instruction furnishes us with several series 
which run co-ordinately and present the different phases 
of the national educational activity. Thus we have the 
religious and moral series of development, the series of 
profane history, the sesthetic or artistic series, the lin- 
guistic series, the series of the natural sciences and 
geography, the mathematical series, etc. It should be 
the office of these series to present the chief eras in 
the development of the single sciences as it has taken 
place within the nation. Accordingly, as many separate 
branches would be subjects of instruction as there are 
phases in the cultural activity of the nation. 

Instruction must Bring Order into Confusion. — 
Without doubt an enormous amount of the most diverse 
ideas have been stored up in these series; they consti- 
tute a heterogeneous mass that is brought from the mar- 
ket of life where it is distributed among many forces, 
into the laboratory of the school in a concentrated form. 
Will not the school succumb under the burden ? 

This question has very often been answered in the 
affirmative, but no one has been able to suggest how 
the evil can be met; or, if any plan was advanced, its 
demands still remained very general. Let us consider 



Arrangement of Material for Instruction . 5 9 

the following statements for example : " All conceivable 
expedients should be devised in order that time and 
energy may be economized and an intensity in the re- 
sults of instruction be attained, through unity in the 
foundations, association of related materials, and the com- 
bination of mutually complementary elements. When 
one finds in certain courses of study, history of the 
Middle Ages, reading from Herodotus, geography of 
America, and German literature since Lessing, side by 
side at the same time, he ought to be glad if, in accord- 
ance with the old custom, the youth does not trouble 
itself much about some of these favors, but, withdraw- 
ing its interest from them, devotes its energies to the 
independent cultivation of some special portion of the 
field of instruction." This is undoubtedly true; but it 
is hardly to be designated as a healthy condition. On 
the contrary, it is our duty to convert the confusa va- 
rietas lectionum into an ordinata varietas. 

Necessity of Concentration.— But how is this to be 
done ? The history of didactics shows various attempts 
to apply a concentration of instruction — for we are 
accustomed to designate the connection of the branches 
of instruction by this name. All of these attempts, 
however, have thus far been able to accomplish so little 
of universal validity that the name ^' concentration " has 
been brought into no slight miscredit. Hence the con- 
fusa varietas lectionum is still the rule in the majority 
of our schools; but it is nevertheless by no means right. 
Such a conglomeration of subjects in the plan of in- 
struction places the most insurmountable obstacles in 
the way of educative instruction. The task of the edu- 
cator, briefly expressed, must be to convert this aggre- 
gate into a systematic plan of instruction. Two re- 



6o Outlines of Pedagogics, 

quirements urge him to tlie attempt: (1) an ethical; (2) 
a psychological. 

No Character Conceivable without Concentration 
of Forces. — The ethical requirement demands that the 
educator endeavor to collect the forces of the pupil, in 
order that they shall not be trifled away, but through 
their concentration result in an energetic and powerful 
activity. No moral character is conceivable without 
such concentration of forces.. But if the pupil is to 
undertake the concentration of his power, we must pro- 
vide, above all, that the circle of thought be as compact 
as possible, and not disconnected. 

The Soul is a Concentrative Force. — Psychology 
teaches in what manner the unity of the person de- 
velops. The person, i.e., the ego, is not an original but 
a developing entity; hence it is also a changeable being. 
The ego is a psychical phenomenon, namely, the be- 
coming conscious of a lively and constant interaction 
within the more or less invisible complex of ideas; in 
other words, it is the consciousness of the interrelation 
of all our ideas, and the psychical conditions that arise 
from them. The inherent ground for the interrelation 
of all our manifold ideas, for their synthesis, as it were, 
at one point, the ego-idea, must be sought in the sim- 
plicity of the soul, which strives to unite all psychical 
contents that are not separated by antithetical and 
arrestive influences. The soul is self -active as a con- 
centrative force in opposition to the manifoldness of im- 
pressions and influences that are furnished by experience 
and intercourse. 

The Soul not always Able to Bring Order into 
Entirely Disconnected Ideas. — But the constructive ac- 
tivity of the youthful mind is overestimated, if one 



Arrangement of Material for Instruction, 6 1 

assumes that it would of itself establish the connections 
between the manifold circles of ideas. In fact, -even in 
adult persons the concentrative poY>^er of the soul is 
often not strong enough to produce unity of conscious- 
ness as the basis for a uniform j)ersonal activity. Where 
a large number of entirely different and disconnected 
ideas have been developed, real unity of the person based 
upon the unity of the consciousness is impossible. 
Without this unity, however, a character is inconceiv- 
able. Unity of consciousness is the primitive foundation 
of character. Instruction, therefore, must be directed 
towards establishing this foundation; it must further 
the concentrative power of the soul by means of its va- 
rious arrangements. It should never place obstacles in 
the way, an error which occurs whenever heterogeneous 
ideas are brought into the consciousness at the same 
time and then quietly left to their fate. Hence, after a 
regular succession of subject-matter has been established 
in accordance with the historical stages of culture, the 
next task is to provide an equally well-arranged co- 
ordination of the various materials for instruction. 

Co-ordination of Studies. — The thought may now oc- 
cur to us to lighten this task of co-ordination by abandon- 
ing the cultivation of certain circles of ideas from the 
beginning. But it must also be possible to establish a 
harmonious connection between the unity of the person 
and the plurality of the branches of instruction, even 
when all the necessary educational elements are retained. 
If one were to strike out a certain number of instru- 
ments from a symphon}", the work of art would be 
destroyed. The efficiency of instruction will be im- 
paired in the same way if certain essential educational 
elements are not included in the curriculum. 



62 Outlines of Pedagogics. 

No Disharmony should be Found in an Educative 
School — These thoughts recall certain words from the 
encyclopaedia of Stoy.' Here it reads on page 11: "In- 
strnction can hardly be thought of more pertinently than 
when compared to a symphony in which, in fact, at dif- 
ferent times, single voices take the lead with the ' mo- 
tivo,^ then retire and make place for others, and finally 
all together unite harmoniously in one grand stream." 

We can only agree with this simile in part; for, in 
the educative school, the ideas should by all means be 
combined into a unity that contains no contradictions. 
The disharmonies that must occur — as, for example, 
when the teacher of natural science sneers at religious 
ideas, and, conversely, when the teacher of religion ab- 
hors the investigations of natural science as the work 
of the devil — such disharmonies should not by any 
means be brought into the youthful mind, for the reason 
that they destroy the unity of the circle of thought. 
Such work runs in direct opposition to the purposes of 
educative instruction. Thus far the comparison is suit- 
able. But it is iiicorrect that the separate branches of 
instruction in the educative school should alternately 
stand i]i the foreground, in the same manner that the 
various voices in the symphony precede one another 
v^^ith the theme. The maxim, " One thing after an- 
other," is, in general, wrong, because it is not compati- 
ble with the principles of educative instruction.'' 

^ Stoy, EncyklojJMie der Fddogogik. — Ts. 

2 This statenieut is not iiitended by the author to signify that 
all possible branches of study are to be pursued synchronically. 
It by no means precludes the possibility of introducing one 
language, for example, after another, or of arranging the ele- 
mentary science - instruction so that the various sciences are 
treated at the most favorable moments as regards the season of 



Arrangement of Material for Instruction. 63 

The Studies to be Ranked in Accordance with their 
Educative Value. — An examination of the educational 
value of the single branches shows at once that those 
studies are to be given the preference in the instruction 
of the school, which work directly for the attainment of 
the educational aim, and which, by virtue of the content 
they convey to the pupil, are able to meet the demand 
for a valuable circle of thought in which the moral- 
religious interests predominate. 

If one keeps the supreme purpose of education in 
mind, the branches of learning may be easily and dis- 
tinctly ranked in accordance with their pedagogical im- 
portance. 

All Branches of Instruction should be Taken Equally 
into Consideration. — This conclusion is by no means 
intended to express an undervaluation of any of the 
single sciences; but it by all means aims at a correct 
proportionment of the amount which they may con- 
tribute to the formation of the youthful mind and char- 
acter. Above all, the predominance of linguistic studies 
is thus also reduced to the proper limit; and the fiction 
of "formal education,^^ which still haunts many minds, 
but which rests upon Just as crude a conception of the 
intellectual life as the hypothesis of materialism, is 
removed, or, at least, placed within bounds. Occupation 
with the symbols of ideas (language) is certainly of un- 
doubted value for all future use of such symbols (for 
example, in the acquirement of another language), but 

the year, their depeudeuce upon one another, etc. ISTeitber does 
it preclude the gradual introduction of studies in proportion to 
the growing capacity of the child. It is to be understood rather 
as referring to the general classes of material — historical branches, 
language, art, science, mathematics, etc. — T's, 



64 Outlines of Pedagogics. 

indeed for nothing else. Furthermore, the acknowledg- 
ment of this fact is at present constantly spreading, so 
that one may assume that the true significance of the 
so-called " formal education " will soon he placed every- 
where in the right light. None of the hranches of in- 
struction can be regarded as a universal means, the 
intense pursuit of which could develop the formal power 
for mastering all other series of material. On the con- 
trary, they should all be taken equally into considera- 
tion, if the genuine, many-sidedness of interest is to be 
obtained. The only question is. How shall this be ac- 
complished ? 

Rules for Concentration of Studies.— The problem 
which is to be solved may be briefly stated once more in 
the following sentences : 

The centre of the educator's activity is the developing 
personality of the pupil to which the manifold interests 
must always be referred. Now, how is the concentra- 
tion of the branches of instruction to be subordinated 
to this concentration, whose centre is the developing 
character of the pupil. 

We have already spoken of those branches of instruc- 
tion that introduce the "leading motive " (" Leitmotif") 
of education. They comprise the material that is di- 
rected especially toward the training of the disposition. 
These take the most prominent position, since it is 
their purpose to place a weighty and connected mass 
of thoughts and inclinations in the mind and heart. 
These ideas should be of such weight, and have so many 
points of contact with every new thought which may 
appear, that nothing can pass by, no new combination of 
thcHights can take place without reckoning with this 
centre of the circle of thought. 



Co-ordination, Connection, etc, of Studies. 65 



CO-ORDINATIOW, CONNECTION, AND CONCEN^ 
T RAT ION OF STUDIES. 

THE FIEST GEOrP OF BEAXCHES. 

1. Ethical Material — Tlie material for the training 
of the disposition' is drawn fi*om three series: (1) from 
the religious material (from biblical and ecclesiastical 
history); (2) from profane history; (3) from literature* 
The latter, however, will only appear as a special, inde- 
pendent branch in the higher educational schools. Be- 
tween these three series there must be a recii^rocal rela- 
tion, an inner connection. This connection is at once 
vouched for by the arrangement of the material in ac- 
cordance with the historical development of culture in 
50 far as it may be followed in its religious, social, and 
ethical phases. Thus the historical principle of culture 
and the psychological principle coincide. 

2. -^stbetical Material The above-mentioned mate- 
rial for the training of the disposition is supplemented 
by the branches of art ; for example, drawing and sing- 
ing, both of which are directed chiefly to the nurture of = 
the aesthetic interest. The close relationship that exists ^ 
between the ethical and the Eesthetical, insures these 
branches a position next to those that train the disposi- 
tion; their content is naturally and closely related to 
that of the historical branches from which they receive 

^ GesintiuEssstoff. 



66 Outlines of Pedagogics, 

the necessary hints as to the selection and arrangement 
of material. 

3. Formal Material Languages.— To this group be- 
long also the languages, which constitute the formal 
side of the historical material. All historical records — in 
fact, the cultural development of a people — is stored up 
chiefly in its great literary monuments. From these we 
draw the artistic aim, the ability to make the linguistic 
expression the interpreter of the thoughts of the inner 
life. At the same time also the interest is awakened in 
the language itself, as a very characteristic and significant 
creation of man. In this sense the teachiug of language 
appears as a branch of the humanistic instruction, i.e., 
as a branch of the historical instruction. But in the 
educative school the language is only a means to an end, 
not the reverse. Grammatical instruction can claim no 
independent position as do the philological sciences in 
the university. 

This closes the first group of branches, which we may 
designate as the historical group. It possesses a certain 
ascendency ; for wherever we have to deal with the for- 
mation of an ethical personality, a circle of ideas capable 
of supporting a moral character must occupy the central 
place in the entire world of thought. If it is true that 
the precedence is due to the ethical ideas as the forces 
which determine the personality of man, material which 
directly serves in the production of these ideas can also 
claim the precedence. 



Co-ordination y Connection, etc., of Studies. 67 



THE SECOi^D GEOUP OF BKANCHES. 

a. Natural Science Group, — The second greiq^ of 
branches of instruction includes the natural sciences. 
An analysis of the elements of culture shows us that the 
work of mankind is directed on the one hand to the 
ideal sphere — i.e., to religion, mental sciences and art — 
on the other hand to the investigation of nature. Ac- 
cordingly, these two large groups of material may be 
summed up under the phrases — life of nature and life of 
mankind. 

Experience and Intercourse Supplemented by Instruc- 
tion. — We arrive at a similar result by analyzing the 
child's circle of thought, which, as already emjDhasized, 
develops partly through experience, partly through 
intercourse. The child draws experiences ^ from the 
objects of the environment. It enjoys intercourse with 
its parents, brothers and sisters, and playmates. Ex- 
perience refers to the domain of nature; intercourse to 
that of human life. Instruction supplements both of 
these sources, and is also divided into two chief lines; it 
enlarges the actual human intercourse by means of an 
ideal intercourse with the men of fiction and history; it 
enlarges the experience of the pupil in the domain of 
nature by leading him to make observations, collections, 
experiments, descriptions, etc., and at the same time 
works over this experience in its formal phase as regards 
form and number. 

' The author here makes an important distinction between ' ' Er- 
fahning" and "Umgang," for the sake of brevity and clearness, 
which must also be transferred to tlie corresponding English 
words, "experience " and "intercourse." The distiuctiou orig- 
inated with Herbart.— J"5. 



6S 



Outlines of Pedagogics, 
The Circle of Thought. 



(A) Experience. 

Things of the environment. 

Nature, 

Knowledge. 

Broadening of experience. 

Natural sciences. 



Realistic direction. 



(B) Intercourse. 

Men of the environment. 

Life. 

Sympathy. 

Broadening of intercourse. 

Historical branches. 



Humanistic direction. 



The two directions fuse in the general education furnished in 
the educative schools. 

To the second group, which we designate as the 
natural science group, belong the natural sciences in the 
more restricted sense, geography and finally mathematics, 
the branch that represents the formal side of science. 

The Twofold Division of Studies not Sufficient for 
Concentration. — Thus we have obtained a twofold divi- 
sion of the branches of instruction and the circle of 
thought. If one were to content himself with this 
result, the question of concentration would have to ac- 
cept only a partial solution; one would abandon the 
uniform effect of the branches of instruction and there- 
with also the production of a uniform circle of thought. 
The pupil would constantly incline now more to the 
one, now more to the other side, according to the fluc- 
tuations of the interest. But nothing is more dangerous 
for the character than to he constantly thrown about 
hither and thither from one circle of thought to an- 
other without being able to sum them up in a higher 
reflection. A theory of the course of instruction which 



Co-ordination, Connection, etc., of Studies. 69 

contents itself with this twofohl cliyision would give 
clear evidence of its own incapacity to effect a uniform 
organization of the branches of instruction. 

The Relation between the Historical and the 
Science Group. — Therefore one is compelled to inves- 
tigate the further question as to how the second group 
of subjects is to be arranged with reference to the 
first group so as to produce a higher, more complete 
unity. Geograjyhy, as an associative science, is the first 
to offer its services in answering this question. It is 
the natural companion of the instruction in history, in 
that it undertakes to treat the countries in the succes- 
sion in which they have appeared to the intellectual 
sphere of mankind. Hence, it presents, in a condensed 
form, the history of discoveries. The connection of the 
Ir cinches of natural science with the historical series 
proves to be more difficult. In this case the investiga- 
tions may often be connected unconstrainedly with the 
treatment of geographical objects, in order to furnish 
the latter the necessary supplementary support. Thus, 
to cite an example, the investigation of the Alpine flora 
and fauna could be placed beside the geographical treat- 
ment of the Alps. On the other hand, we should also 
consider that the life in jSTature may also be viewed from 
the standpoint of human purposes. The will places 
itself in relation to things of ^Nature in order to bring 
them into the service of man. Human activity experi- 
ences limitations from two sides; it is limited (1) by 
the ethical ideas, and (3) by the nature of things. This 
obligation to the moral ideas limits the purposes of 
action > restriction by the nature of things limits the 
means of action. On the other hand, these two spheres 
contain aids to human activity as well as limitations 



70 Outlines of Pedagogics, 

In the education of the will both must be brought 
to the pupiFs consciousness; he must acquire^(l) an 
understanding of those limitations and aids that are 
based upon the ethical ideas; (2) an understanding of 
the limitations and aids that depend upon the relations 
of things in Nature. 

Both Groups United in a Plan of Concentration. — 
The first is the office of the instruction that especially 
trains the disposition. The latter is the office of instruc- 
tion in natural sciences. Thus both series, both the 
chief groups, unite in that higher reflection at which 
the education of the disposition aims. Both series, 
taken together, furnish the materials for the pictures of 
culture which should be viewed both from the stand- 
point of their time and that of the pupil, and should 
chain his interest as a constant ascending series. 

Thus we have sketched in the rough the plan of con- 
centration for the curriculum of an educative instruc 
tion. 

In this plan all the elements are represented that 
should be considered in the formation of the cur- 
riculum : — 

1. The ultimate moral and religious purpose. 

2. The harmonious psychological and historical gra- 

dation of the instruction. 

3. The correlation of the various materials of instruc- 

tion. 

An Organic Structure not Produced by Mechanical 
Co-ordination of Studies. — Organized in accordance 
with this programme, instruction may become an un- 
broken educational force, comparable to organic matter. 



Co-ordination, Connection, etc, of Studies, 71 

And yet plans of instruetion are constantly being created 
by the mere artless collection of the series of material; 
curricula are constantly being prepared in which merely 
the matter to be treated is considered, but not the ques- 
tion as to what materials will be co-ordinated in the 
application of the plan, nor how they may be connected. 
A sort of educational atomism is apparent here, which 
has taken hold of the work of instruction, and thinks it 
can produce an organic structure by the mere accumu- 
lation and piling up of material — a living being by the 
mere mechanical co-ordination of forces. In contrast 
with this tendency we may cite the thought of Plato's, 
that the branches of learning should always be viewed 
in their connection and understood according to their 
relationship. 

The following summary may serve to render this 
relationship clear once more : — 



72 



Outlines of Pedagogics, 






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Co-ordination, Connection, etc., of Studies. 73 



ZiLLER.* 



1. Group. 



1. Historical Series. 

2. Katural Science. 



2. Group. 

1. Languages. 

2. Mathematics. 
(Drawing). 



3. Group. 



1. Geography. 

2. Turning. 

3. Technical Oc- 
cupations. 

4. Singing. 



Supplementary Remarks on the Application of the Pre- 
ceding Sections (a) and (i).^ 

Applicability of Principles. — Our system has thus far 
fixed upon its educational aim (character-building) and 
the aim of its instruction (the many-sided interest), and 
has entered upon the consideration of tlie means of in- 
struction. Here the Herbartian school distinguishes 
three great principles— the historical stages of culture, 
concentrcdion, and the/orm«^ steps of instruction. The 
first two of these three principles, with which we are 
concerned here, have been theoretically and psychologi- 
cally established in the preceding pages. It is now our 
task to inquire somewhat more minutely into their gen- 
eral practical application, for the question now occurs to 
us at once : Can these principles be a^^plied ? One can 

^ It is very apparent that the first of these three classifications 
is based upon a clear principle, and one that may be derived 
directly from Herbart's own views. The second and third do not 
seem to have sought a logical principle of classification, but 
merely to have adopted an arbitrary grouping that would serve 
practical purposes. There can be no doubt that Herbart always 
had two main groups in view— the historical and the scientific. 
See also C. A. McMurry's General Method, chap. ii. — T's. 

'■* The object of these supplementary remarks is to give some 
conception of the application of ideas that, especially in their 
practical phases, are more or less new to tlie English and American 
teacher. The intention, therefore, is only to supply a guide to 
the general application ; proposals for any single case can only be 
made where all the circumstances are known. The special appli- 
cations, therefore, would necessarily dilfer among themselves ac- 
cording to their different circumstances. Wherever specific pro- 
positions are made, they are intended to be suggestive rather than 
determinative. — Y. L. 



74 Outlines of Pedagogics, 

only obtain an answer to this question — (1) by referring 
to attempts already made to apply these principles and 
summing up their results; (2) by testing their applica- 
bility for himself. A conclusive and convincing answer, 
either pro or con, cannot be had until both means have 
been employed. The following statements are based 
upon curricula' arranged in accordance with the afore- 
said principles, and upon extended observations of their 
successful practical application. 

Course of the Study. — In our further investigations 
we shall endeavor to keep in mind the aim both of edu- 
cation and instruction as already established. We have 
already seen (page 99) that there are three tasks to be 
performed in laying out the course of study — (1) The 
stages of development in the child^s mind are to be 
determined; (2) the national stages of development, 
the national eras, are to be determined; and (3) the 
latter are to be placed, so far as possible, parallel to, and 
in harmony with, the former. As a result of these pre- 
liminary works, the course of study already referred to, 
which is arranged only for the eight years of the peo- 
ple's school, presents the following summary of material 
for the historical instruction : — ^ 



1. 


School Year. 


Marchen. 


3. 


(< 




Robinson. 

Sacred Series. Profane Series. 


3. 






Patriarchs and Moses. Thliringer Tales. 


4. 






Judges and Kings. Nibelungen Tales. 


5. 
6. 






[Life of Christ. ll'^rJ-^tS 


7. 






Paul. Reformation. 


8. 


" 




Luther. Catechism. Nationalization. 



"' Theorie und Praxis des Volkssuchlu7iterricMs, by Prof. Dr. W. 
Rein, A. Pickel, and E. Scheller, Leipzig. 

2 It is almost impossible to produce an adequate translation of 
the German term, " Gesinnungsunterricht," which is used here. 
"Historical instruction" has, therefore, been used above, and 
must be understood in the more restricted sense. 



Co-ordination, Connection, etc., of Studies. 75 

As may be seen, the historical instruction bifurcates 
after the first two years into a sacred and profane series ; 
but the division is merely external. A glance at the 
corresponding materials for each year (wliich are here 
highly generalized) in the two series, shows that they 
harmonize internally with remarkable accuracy. The 
unity is preserved. This arrangement of material refers 
only to the time at which the various periods are 
methodically treated. It by no means excludes the 
possibility of the child's hearing of Christ in the first 
four yearSj for example; numerous opportunities are at 
hand (Christmas, Sunday, devotions, etc.) to provide for 
this necessary part of the earliest training. Here 'we 
have to do merely with the gradual general development 
of the child's conceptions of sacred and profane events 
for the sake of their uniform and harmonious eifect 
upon his character. Neither is all that may be included 
under each one of these general headings undertaken. 
Only enough is brought before the child in well-chosen 
" pictures of the will," to present the period in its essen- 
tial characteristic features. Here the culture and good 
common sense of the teacher are in demand. Let us 
notice further that certain general features of develop- 
ment are apparent, showing that this is not merely a 
chance parallelism. Eor example, a glance at the indus- 
trial phases of national life presented in these two his- 
torical series reveals the following typical stages: — 1. 
Hunter's life; 2. Nomadic life; grazing is a new occu- 
pation of man; lower animal life enters into the service 
of man; 3. Agricultural life; 4. Development of retail 
trade and small industries; 5. Development of wholesale 
trade, foreign commerce, and great industries; growth 
of great cities. The lines cannot be sharply drawn be- 
tween these several stages; natural development seldom 
displays marked signs of transaction. A¥e simply find 
the development of certain industrial phases predomi- 
nant at certain periods in the history of a nation. A 
similar comparison may be applied to the cultural devel- 
opment. 



76 Outlines of Pedagogics, 

Development of the^ Child Mind.— In the same way 
we find certain psychological changes that correspond in 
general to the psychical development of the child. In 
the first six years of its life the child^s psychical develop- 
ment consists chiefly in conscious reception and repro- 
duction; it is occupied with its numberless sense-per- 
ceptions of the outer world and learns its mother-tongue. 
Comparison, thought, are as yet primitive. This period 
includes also the years of the kindergarten. At the time 
the child enters school, his imagination is beginning to 
show signs of lively development; he longs for fairy 
tales; he is like the people that has risen above the 
stage of mere sensual impression, and is beginning to 
develop a national imagination, and hence a culture. 
Its first literary treasures will be highl}'' imaginative. 
His will, as yet, experiences no severe conflicts. He 
still relies entirely upon his childish trust. At a later 
stage the mechanical memory appears in its most marked 
phase; the childish imagination continues active. As 
in the first school-years, he is still eager for wondrous 
tales, and his mental possessions continue to increase. 
But he often finds his will coming into unpleasant con- 
flict with other wills both in his games and in his work. 
He must learn the bitter lesson of subjugation to the 
will of the whole. 

A further stage finds the understanding struggling to 
rise, to gain control over the mass of material in posses- 
sion of the mechanical memory. There is a strong 
desire to create something with one^s own hands. In- 
dependence is beginning to develop, for the child is 
getting control over its will. There is still often a lack 
of perseverance in completing the tasks that have been 
independently and voluntarily undertaken. 

The closing stage of childhood is characterized by 
rapid strides toward the predominance of the under- 
standing. .New things are viewed in the light of old 
mental possessions. The ability to judge correctly is 
greater. The will is still further under control. It 



Co-ordination, Connection, etc., of Studies, 77 

determines the actions of the individual in accordance 
with his moral ideas, his principles, his conscience. 

Thus we have characterized in very rough, brief out- 
lines the development of the child in his first fourteen 
years of life. Let us repeat again that neither these 
stages nor their individual features are fixed. They 
vary in different natures; they frequently overlap, and 
the transition from one stage to another is of course im- 
perceptible. So far as an approximate estimate can be 
made, each one of the four stages beginning with the 
sixth school-year may be regarded as corresponding to 
two of the eight school-years. We have simply charac- 
terized the child in general at several different times in 
its life for the purpose of comparing his development 
v/ith that of a people. A glance in comparison at the 
above series of historical material shows an undoubted 
analogy with the development of the child, and demon- 
strates that the material thus chosen is suitable for the 
child's mind. Let us not make the mistake, however, 
of expecting too much from this comjDarison, this 
analogy. It is sufficient to guide us; it is all that could 
be expected; but it is not complete, for if this were 
possible all individuality whatever would be removed. 
What, then, is the general result ? We have a series of 
material for use in the historical instruction that corre- 
sponds to mental development of the child in general, 
that is suited to his powers at each stage, and that gives 
him a survey of the historical development of his people, 
culminating at the time he enters a maturer'life. 

Culture Epochs Justified by Psychology — The first 
two years constitute a sort of preliminary course, in 
which the imaginative element predominates. The fol- 
lowing six years present, in general, a gradual national 
development from superstition, ignorance, and unruly 
Avill-power to enlightenment, understanding and the 
joint-will of a good government. This development is 
analogous to that just traced in the child. The entire 
series contains rich ethical material, whose proper treat- 
ment (see page 135) cannot fail to develop a moral con- 



7 8 Outlines of Pedag ogics . 

tent in tlie child^s mind. Can any one doubt that this 
.arrangement, which provides for a gradual ethical, social, 
and national development of the child, extending through 
his entire school-life in one unbroken stream, could be 
otherwise than effective ? Does it not bear a great con- 
trast to the usual arrangement of the curriculum, in 
which the guiding principles have seemed to be merely 
to find material for each grade that was easy enough for 
the child at that age, and to satisfy the demands of 
both tradition and the popular novelties ? 

Objections. — What effect this principle of succession 
in the curriculum will have upon other branches we 
shall consider shortly. Let us next consider some of 
the most noteworthy objections that have been made to 
the above principle : 

1. Sticklers for chronology will object that the chrono- 
logical order is not preserved. But what teacher of his- 
tory that is master and not slave of his subject was ever 
able to preserve the chronological order? Nor is this 
a prerequisite. Let us remember that that which is 
psychologically near to the child is not always chrono- 
logically near him. The psychologically near must have 
the preference. Again, the historical development is by 
no means disturbed if the changes in chronological order 
do not extend over too large periods. This development 
would be violated by a change in the chronological order 
of distinct, purely historical periods, but not in the order 
of events that have a common character, and that belong 
to the same epoch. 

2. It must be acknowledged that the principle of his- 
torical development is directly opposed to what has 
been termed the principle of " concentric circles," which 
is to be distinguished sharply from " concentric instruc- 
tion," or " concentration " in the Herbartian sense. The 
principle of concentric circles has been very influential 
in the past. It aims to give the child the simplest 
elements of all branches in the first school-years, and 
then to repeat the work on a larger, maturer scale in 



Co-ordination, Connection, etc., of Studies, 79 

the last years. Sometimes the same subject is treated 
from its foundation up in this manner three times. 
Behold the " primary geograph}^^' the " intermediate ge- 
ography/' and the " higher geography" ! This method 
01 procedure is incompatible with the historical stages. 
It has but one psychological fact upon which it is 
based — a fact that by no means renders it imperative. 
It is an attempt to take the steady develo23ment of the 
child into consideration. The child^s powers grow; his 
unfolding understanding is capable of seeing facts in a 
newer and broader liglit. Hov*^ can this be possible if 
he passes over a subject, or a part of a subject, but once 
and only in his earlier years ? We at once answer: this 
is a problem that depends upon the art of the teacher. 
The Herbartian pedagogics is, in general, opposed to 
giving the child a certain mental content, and then al- 
lowing it to rest. It aims to keep the entire mental 
content alive by producing constant relations between 
the old and the new. In fact, it has a specific term for 
old ideas, viz., " apperceiving concepts.^^ These familiar 
mental possessions are constantly in demand when the 
child is acquiring new circles of thought. But that is 
not the only result of their constant activity. They 
themselves steadily grow and deepen in the light of the 
newer material, and with the child's unfolding under- 
standing.^ Again, practice supplies the necessary sup- 
port to the memory. Thus the principle of historical 
stages meets in a much more satisfactory way the demand 
made upon the curriculum by the child^s mental devel- 
opment. The material for each grade is treated in a 
manner suited to the mental status of the pupil. The 
old is broadened, deepened, and renewed in the light of 
the new. At the same time, the treatment of the sub- 
ject-matter is reinforced in this work of maturing old 
circles of thought, by the course of study itself; for the 

^ Compare the supplementary remark on the Formal Steps, 
page 146. 



So Outlines of Pedagogics. 

latter presents a regular series of material, whose con- 
tent becomes more mature as the mental horizon of the 
child broadens. But what can we advance from our 
own standpoint against the so-called principles of con- 
centric circles ? 

1. One of its well-known effects is the dampening of 
the interest. Too often it requires the pupil to repeat 
processes, with which he is already familiar, for the sake 
of the mere repetition. 

2. Again, it constantly breaks up old series of ideas 
and requires the formation of new — a revolutionary pro- 
cess that is more or less disturbing to the psychical life. 
So far as possible the work of instruction should be so 
arranged as to produce little waste in the formation of 
fixed series of ideas. It is very evident that the prin- 
ciple of concentric circles (which, happily, is rapidly 
losing its power) is also the cause of a great waste of 
time. It is a principle which we cannot afford to make 
the determinative factor in the formation of the curric- 
ulum, especially at a time when numberless new de- 
mands, the outgrowths of a higher civilization, are being 
constantly placed upon the schools. 

3. The attempt to give the child an epitome or general 
survey of each branch in his earlier years inevitably 
results in feeding him upon dry, uncomprehended 
generalities. It cuts off the possibility of cultivating 
careful observation and perception in the very years 
when the child is most receptive for the individual im- 
pressions of his environment, and when he should be 
laying up a store of particular facts from which to draw 
careful and more mature generalizations. 

A fourth objection will be noticed when we come to 
consider the subject of concentration. 

Principles Capable of Application Everywhere.— 
Thus far we have only considered the historical instruc- 
tion of a curriculum arranged for the common schools 
of the country in which this movement originated. We 
now ask. Are these principles applicable elsewhere, i.e.^ 



Co-ordination, Connection, etc., of Studies, 8i 

are they general principles ? Leaving tlie sacred series 
of the historical instruction as it stands (for, in case 
religious instruction were imparted in the schools, it 
would remain essentially the same, with slight changes, 
of course, in the last year as regards the reformation), 
let us attempt to make the application elscAvhere, in a 
general way, for the sake of illustration. We are not 
making a study of any national pedagogical principles, 
but of principles that are capable of application any- 
where, if one but takes the different circumstances duly 
into consideration. As this volume is addressed to 
English readers, we cannot do better, perhaps, than to 
view the principles briefly in the light of their possible 
application in the schools of English-speaking nations. 
Vv^e shall only attempt this in the most general manner ; 
for, as has already been emphasized, the curriculum 
should receive a different stamp as to its particulars, 
according to the location of the school. 

The Schools of English-speaking Nations.— The two 
years' preliminary course could remain the same. The 
choice of tales (fables) for the first year would depend 
largely upon the locality in which the children lived. 
They should, so far as possible, be peculiar to his people, 
or better, to his state or community. They should be 
classical, and their contents should not be purely and 
wildly imaginati^^e, but ethically valuable as well. Rob- 
inson Crusoe is a common literary treasure of the Eng- 
lish-speaking nations. But its educational value was 
first recognized by Eousseau, a Frenchman, and sys- 
tematically applied by Ziller, a German Herbartian. 
Any one who has read Eobinson (and who has not ?), 
and who will reflect for a moment upon the vast amount 
of elementary ideas upon geography, zoology, botany, 
art, society, etc., that it contains will see at once that 
this is just the material for the second year, when these 
same elementary ideas are beginning to unfold some- 
what more definitely in the child. The most recent 
experiments with this material depart somewhat from 



82 Outlines of Pedagogics, 

Defoe's narrative, in that after Robinson reaches the 
island he is made to accomplish everything he can for 
himself with the raw materials of Nature before he dis- 
covers the ship. His rude clothes, weapons, potter}^, 
cave, and laboring implements present to the child the 
first step in the history of culture and art. The com- 
parison that follows when he discovers the ship, and 
has the gun, the powder, the axe, saw, and hammer, the 
cloth and the books of civilization at his command, is 
one that arouses the deepest and most permanent inter- 
est, and gives the child a valuable mental content. 

Material for the English School.— This preliminary 
work might be followed in English schools by some 
such material as this:' 3d year, Old English Legends, 
characteristic of the earliest days, which may be chosen 
without a strict regard to chronology; they would, 
above all, include the legends of King Arthur and the 
Round 2\ible, Bobin Hood, etc. 4th and 5th years. 
The Settlement of England, as presented in its legends 
(See Freeman's Old ILnglish History), The Anglo-Saxon 
Forefathers, the Danes, and The Christ ianization of 
England (Egbert, Alfred, Canute, Augustine, Paullinus, 
Dunstan, etc.). 6th year. Great English Kings, from 
William the Conqueror to the War of the Roses. 7th 
year, Renaissance, Reformation, Age of Discovery to 
1763. 8th year. Development of Modern England.'' 

Historical Series in American Schools. — The ar- 
rangement of the historical series presents greater diffi- 
culties for the American school, for the reason that the 
national development of the United States can only be 
correctly regarded as a continuance of certain tenden- 
cies more or less manifest in England since the time of 
the Magna Charta. But the difficulty is not entirely- 
insurmountable. All of the material necessary is at 
hand. After the preliminary course of two years, the 

^ For suggestions here I am indebted to J. J. Findlay, formerly 
headmaster of Wesley College in Sheffield. 



Co-ordination, Connection, etc., of Studies. 83 

cliild has already heard of the savage in Eobinson. 
The transition is natural to a fe^v Indian legends. In 
them he learns of the original inhabitants of his conn- 
try. Soon the Indian meets the Avhite man, and the 
child is introduced to a series of pioneer stories^ begin- 
ning with those first which lie closest to his circle 01 
thought." This material would occupy the 3d and 4th 
years. The question is then brought to the child's 
mind — whence these white men, whose coming has 
brought such changes to the land and its former in- 
habitants ? The answer to this question must be sought 
in the history of discovery and exploration — a step back- 
ward chronologically, but a step forward to the child. 
Then follows the history of settlement and colonial his- 
tory, two more school-years (5 and 6) being required 
for the whole. The last two years would then be de- 
voted to the Revolution and the Constitutional period.^ 

Not too Early for History. — The above suggestions 
are sufficient to give the reader some idea of a general 
a publication. He can compare them with that which 
precedes, and enter into the particulars as regards ma- 
terial for himself. 

It will be asked. Does this not introduce the child to 
history too early ? ^e answer, Xo. Experience has 
demonstrated that there is no branch of instuction ca- 



^ Among the abuDdance of literature that may be used as read- 
ing matter in concentration upon the historical material may be 
mentioned Readings from English Histary, by J. R. Green, 31. A., 
LL.D., and Historical Ballads, by Charlotte 31. Yonge. 

- Pioneer Histmy Stories for the TIdrd and Fourth Grades, bv 
C. A. 3Ic3Iurry. 

* Since writing the above I have read the propositions of Dr. 
Charles A. ^ic^Iurry, in his General Jlethod, which coincide in 
the main with my suggestions. The latter were originally 
sketched somewhat more fulh* with the kind assistance ^of my 
countrynian. A, C. Rishel, of Chicago. It seems to me that use 
should by all means be made of xhe pure Indian legends, and 
ihat this material, leading to the hfe of the pioneer with whom 
the Indian comes ia contact, is fitted for the third school-vear. 



84 Outlines of Pedagogics, 

pable of arousing a deeper or more lasting interest in 
the child, when properly treated, than history. When 
the historical series is adapted to the child's stage of 
apperception from the first year and presents a gradual 
development, there is no danger that the child will not 
be able to grasp or be attracted by the events of history, 
providing they are presented with a fair degree of skill; 
he begins in any case with the simpler relations and ad- 
vances to the more complicated. 

Concentration. — What effect will this arrangement of 
the historical instruction have upon the formation of 
the curriculum as regards the other branches of instruc- 
tion ? We can answer this question by reference to the 
principle of concentration, which has already been 
established theoretically. Let us consider it briefly in 
its practical phases. It has been very aptly said ^ that 
" the psychological basis for the principle of concentra- 
tion is to be found in the activity of apperception," and 
that on this account concentration in the curriculum 
and in the instruction is at the same time most efficient 
aid in obtaining the child's permanent and penetrating 
interest. We have already heard that "the developing 
personalty of a pupil is a centre to which manifold 
interests must always be referred." This can mean 
nothing less than that the mind is active as an apper- 
ceiving force; it recognizes, identifies, assimilates as a 
unit, a centre. The pedagogical principle, therefore, 
that is based on this psychical activity, we call con- 
centration. According to this principle, the various 
branches should be united to a whole in the curriculum; 
according to it the instruction should be carried on. 

For the sake of clearness one may distinguish two 
forms of concentration: (1) Concentration in the cur- 
riculum and (2) concentration in instruction. Both 
forms of concentration take into consideration, — {a) the 



^ See W. T. Harris in Public School Journal^ BloomiDgton, 111., 
vol. xi., Nos. 3 and 5, 



Co-ordination, Connection, etc., of Studies, ^s 

preYioiis instruction and (h) the life, enyironment^ and 
experiences ontside of the school. 

We make use of past instrnction in concentration 
when we compare Eobinson with Boone, Africa with 
South America, when we solve one geometrical problem 
with the assistance of others previouslj solved; we 
make use of the chikrs environment in concentration 
when we read, " The snow had begun in the gloaming, 
etc.,^^ at some appropriate time after a snowfall, not in 
July, when we present a rural, descriptive, heroic, or 
historical poem to the child, just at the moment when 
he can see and feel its fitness {Authors^ Birtlidays), and 
when we draw upon his knowledge of the surrounding 
country, of its points of historical, industrial or geo- 
gi'aphical interest for apperceiving concepts. 

Let us consider first concentration in the curriculum. 
The objection has often been made that if the historical 
stages are to be valid, all branches should be arranged 
accordingly, and that this would necessitate the teach- 
ing of alchemy before chemistry, astrology before as- 
tronomy, etc. This would be very true if we had to do 
with history in these cases. But we have not. The 
principle of the historical stages is rq^plicable to all of 
the historical branches without diflcculty. As regards 
other branches we are only concerned with truth as we 
see it to-day. If this truth bears a relation to the 
child's life it is capable of being brought into harmony 
with the historical instruction of the school. The his- 
torical material is intended not only to impart knowl- 
edge, but also, above all, to develop the child's character 
through his ideas. It therefore stands in close relation 
to the child's own personalty all through the common- 
school-course. Hence it must form the centre of all 
instruction. To the historical series as a center the 
other branches are to be referred. Their relations to 
the life and work of man must be made clear to the 
child. He must be conscious of the fact that all knowl- 
edge bears a very definite relation to man and his affairs, 



86 Outlhies of Pedagogics, 

Here concentration enters tlie field. Let ns now harbor 
the erroneous idea that the other branches are now to 
lose their identity, to become mere puppets in the hands 
of the historical instruction. By no means; each nec- 
essary branch will retain its distinctive character, re- 
ceive its distinct portion of time in the daily plan, and 
be allowed to pursue its own specific aim, in so far as it 
serves and does not violate the supreme aim of edu- 
cation and instruction. Let us now take the separate 
branches in order, for the purpose of seeing how they 
may be concentrated. We begin with the historical 
branches. The historical series in the more restricted 
sense has already been discussed. After it has been 
laid out to suit the school and the circumstances the 
next branch to be considered would be— 

Literature and Reading.— In the last few decades a 
great deal has been written for children in the English 
tongue. A number of writers have turned tlieir atten- 
tion to historical subjects and have produced much that 
should be turned to account in the school. Besides 
this newer material, the older classical literary treasures 
contain much that is within the grasp of the child, 
especially in the last school-years. Thus, with the ex- 
ception of the first two years, by a careful selection of 
material, the reading of the child can be made to bear 
upon his historical studies. Thus, too, his knowledge 
of the subject is enriched and very often his memory 
refreshed. In the first two years the child is occupied 
with the task of learning to read. Yet even here, as 
soon as a little facility has been attained, concentration 
can help him. The fairy tales, fables, and Eobinson 
can be had in sufficiently simple form. But we must 
not forget that the child is cxjwriencing real life at the 
same time that he is learning. His holidays and na- 
tional celebrations, the changes and events of nature, 
the events of his native place also furnish numerous 
occasions that should guide the teacher in bringing 



Co-ordination, Connection, etc,, of Studies. 87 

home to the child the circumstances which called forth 
some literary treasure. 

Singing. — After considering the concentration of 
readings it is not difficult to understand how singing is 
to be concentrated. Here, above all, the national songs 
come into requisition; their meaning should be made 
the more significant to the child through their relation 
to the historical material. As before, the environment 
of the child is another determinative factor in the selec- 
tion of material. In all cases, as a matter of course, the 
child^s facility, which is but a means to an end, must be 
taken into due consideration. 

Drawing. — In the first school-year the child begins to 
practice that form of drawing which the Germans so 
aptly designate as " Malen " or " Malendes Zeichnen.'^ 
For want of a better term we may call it rougli slcetch- 
ing. He depicts in the rough his conception of the 
object he sees. It is one of the tasks in which he is 
freest, in which he creates at will. This rougli sketch- 
ing is kept up throughout the entire course, gradually 
improving in character, and entering into the service of 
geography, science, mathematics, and even history. Its 
use is to bring the unfolding concepts of the child to 
light, where he can see them, as it were, to simplify the 
objects of perception, and to illustrate. In this phase, 
drawing is chiefly a concentrative means. But its 
sphere does not stop here. Early in the school-course 
the child is introduced to exact drawing. Here teachers 
in the European states have a great advantage over 
those in America. The architectural structures that 
are to be found in almost every village and city of civil- 
ized Europe furnish the most abundant objective ma- 
terial from which to proceed. The churches, cloisters, 
public buildings, castles and palaces of Europe, even in 
a ruined state, contain all the artistic forms that can be 
found in any drawing-course. In addition to this, the 
history of art is contained in them. The teacher can, 
with ease, so arrange the drawing-lessons of the pupil 



SS Outlines of Pedagogics, 

that tfiey present the development of art in its chief 
epochs, parallel to the epochs of history. At all events, 
where possible, the work should be started with the in- 
spection of a work of architecture. A single church 
will furnish material enough for months of work. 
Thus, in two important lines, drawing may be made one 
of the most valuable and helpful concomitants of the 
historical instruction. What has been said of drawing 
is also true as modelling. The very best results of both 
are to be found in the esthetic culture of the child. 
This aBsthetic culture is only to be had by a study of the 
historical development of art, chiefly as displayed in the 
treasures of architecture. If a nation is too young to 
have passed through these stages itself, its modern 
structures and art treasures should be analyzed with a 
view to bringing out the original forms and styles upon 
which the whole is based. 

Language. — We have already shown how literature 
and reading may be concentrated to the historical in- 
struction. The further instruction in language has ref- 
erence merely to facility in speaking and writing. A 
properly-directed historical instruction, beginning with 
the first and closing with the eighth school-year, is the 
most important and effective means for developing fa- 
cility in speaking. The material deals chiefly with nar- 
rative, which always give's the pupil less difficulty than 
almost any other form of discourse. The grammatical 
studies should be connected with the text that is placed 
in the hands of the pupil. The content of some literary 
selection forms the objective material for the child's 
grammatical perception. From it he derives his gram- 
matical system. Work in composition should draw upon 
the different series of material; above all, let it beware 
of selecting its subjects at random from spheres that are 
entirely foreign both to the child's life and environment, 
and to his present and past instruction. 

Geography should bear the closest possible relations 
to the historical instruction. The very nature of the 



Co-ordination, Connection, etc., of Studies. 89 

subject facilitates concentration. The history of one's 
own nation not only treats of the one people, but con- 
stantly reveals points of contact with other lands. These 
points of contact give occasion for the geographical 
study of these countries. Nor need this principle of 
selection disturb the systematic development of the 
branch in the least. The points of contact are so nu- 
merous that the most suitable moment for introducing 
the child to each sphere can easily be found. When he 
hears of the ideas and deeds of Columbus, for example, 
he is at once interested in attaining a deeper insight 
into the mathematical relations of the earth. If his 
mind is at this time mature enough, this is the time to 
open the subject; if not, some other natural and suit- 
able time may be chosen. It is also quite in keeping 
with the principle of concentration to postpone political 
geography until the last school-years. At this time the 
child is occupied with modern history, and the oppor- 
tunity is favorable for taking another view of the world 
in its political aspect. This is of especial importance to 
him as a future citizen. The development of the last 
century has brought his country more than ever in con- 
tact with the entire world. This contact reveals to him 
the true standing of his nation. 

Mathematics and the Sciences.— These branches are 
more difficult to concentrate than those previously men- 
tioned. Still concentration is here possible and bene- 
ficial. A large share of the work of concentration is 
accomplished in the instruction, as we shall shortly dem- 
onstrate. Otherwise these branches are to be considered 
as the bearers of knowledge that enter into the service 
of man. This fact is brought to the pupiFs conscious- 
ness by drawing upon the various already concentrated 
series for the concrete material of mathematical prob- 
lems, for example. If such a problem opens a " method - 
whole," the child understands its connection with life, 
and the demands of concentration are satisfied, the unity 
is preserved. In the same way some fact that has ap- 



90 Outlines of Pedagogics, 

peared in the historical series, or in one of the other 
series with which it is concentrated, gives the inipnlse 
for scientific investigations. Both mathematics and sci- 
ence, however, should find a centre for their work in the 
life and environment of the child, for here the objective 
material is found upon which the entire instruction 
should be based. 

Concentration in Teaching — Thus far, we have not 
prepared a curriculum of instruction, but have merely 
indicated how its historical centre might be selected and 
the plan of concentration applied. Let us now consider 
"concentration in instruction ^Mn its broadest applica- 
tion. When the child enters upon a new subject its 
connection with the whole should be made clear to him 
at once. In stating the aim of the lesson, for example, 
the teacher refers directly to the bond that unites the 
geographical study of a certain land with the historical 
work. In the majority of cases the wide-awake pupil is 
able to state the connection without assistance. In the 
same way a thousand lines may be drawn that show the 
complete interrelation of all the child's tasks. As soon 
as the bond is perceived, however, the subject of instruc- 
tion pursues its own course. Furthermore, the teacher 
who is alive to the importance of concentration must be 
thoroughly acquainted with the environment and life of 
the child, and make a constant use of the objects that are 
known to the child wherever they will aid apperception. 
He also arranges his school-v/alks and journeys so that 
they will accord with and further the work of instruc- 
tion. He never forgets that the child has been acquir- 
ing facts of all kinds from the time of his birth, and 
that these facts constitute the apperceiving concepts for 
the new. Concentration furnishes a strong argument 
for advancing the teacher from grade to grade with his 
scholars. There can be no doubt that he is best fitted 
to teach the child who not only understands his nature 
in general, but also has an intim.ate knowledge of the 
specific contents of his mind. 



Co-ordination, Connection, etc., of Studies, 91 

In closing, let us consider for a moment some of the 
advantages which a course of study, arranged in accord- 
ance with these principles, offers in addition to those 
already discussed in preceding chapters. First, the cur- 
riculum is relieved of a great deal of pressure, due to 
the old habit of unnecessarily reviewing entire subjects 
merely for the sake of review. These principles provide 
for the refreshing of the old, but demand constant prog- 
ress in instruction. This by no means excludes term 
or yearly reviews, but merely the old plan of elementary, 
intermediate, and higher courses in the same branch in 
the common school. But what is to become of the vast 
amount of work that has been devoted to the prepara- 
tion of text-books on the old plan ? We answer, if the 
teacher is master, and not slave of his text-book, they 
can still be serviceable to him. Upon what principle is 
the old system of five or six readers based, for example ? 
What demands that the teacher shall slavishly drive his 
pupil through each reader from the beginning to end 
without regard to the fitness of the material, or to a 
suitable order ? But, to follow out this example, these 
readers contain much valuable material ; the teacher 
must follow a higher ideal and select the literature, not 
the book. This is true of any branch. Therefore, time 
is gained for the increasing demands which modern civ- 
ilization places upon the school by setting aside useless 
repetition. Again, one of the subordinate aims of edu- 
cation is to train patriotic citizens. The historical in- 
struction, which forms the centre of the entire school- 
life, is better able to satisfy this demand than any arti- 
ficial means. This plan of instruction also constantly 
enlivens the interest of the child because it constantly' 
fosters the acquisition of related knowledge. 

The historical stages and concentration in their effect 
upon the course of study must appeal to those who pre- 
pare the latter. Concentration, however, can always be 
of use to the teacher in practice. He can only make 
use of the historical stages at present, in so far as they 



92 Outlines of Pedagogics, 

do not conflict with that which the present curriculum 
prescribes. The above illustrations will suffice to show 
how the application may be made in general; the indi- 
vidual application must be left to the reflection and study 
of the teacher. 

Exhaustive data as to the application of the principles 
of concentration and the historical stages of culture for 
any other schools than those in which they were first 
applied and have been worked out in detail, cannot be 
given until the attempt has been made to apply them in 
other fields. It will not be necessary here to indicate 
how they may be, or have been, applied in the higher 
class of educative schools that prepare for the higher 
professional studies. If the child enters upon its classi- 
cal and linguistic studies seasonably and before the years 
of childhood have been brought to a close, the history 
of general culture can be presented to him in the same 
way that the child of an eight-year common school passes 
through the history of his nation's culture. — F. L* 



Treatment of the Subject-Matter. 93 

(c) TREATMENT OF THE SUBJECT-MATTER. 

There Can be Only One Method. — After the proper 
material has been chosen and suitably arranged, the next 
task is to present it to the scholars, so that it shall be- 
come their permanent possession. 

The systematic treatment of the subject of instruc- 
tion is generally comprehended under the name of 
'^ method ^^ in the more restricted sense of the word. 
The Yiew of Herder, who said: "Every teacher must 
have his own method; he must have created it himself 
through his own intelligence, or it is of no advantage to 
him," is, in fact, v/idespread, but fundamentally false. 
A confusion of the concepts, method, and manner lies 
at the basis of this proposition; for there can be only 
one method. As Oomenius has already said: "There is 
but one natural method for all sciences, arts, and lan- 
guages." This is true if we accept the hypothesis that 
the human soul works according to definite lav/s, if we 
grant the supposition that psychical processes conform 
to laws the same as physical. According to this suppo- 
sition, there can be but one natural method of instruc- 
tion — viz., that which conforms exactly to the laws of 
the human mind, and makes all its arrangements ac_ 
cordingly. 

No Man Can Mechanize Education Therefore, he 

who is in possession of knowledge and insight into the 
laws of psychical life can also obtain possession ol the 
right method of instruction. Hence it follows that the 



94 Outlines of Pedagogics. 

natural method can only be regarded as an idea, as 
a goal that is placed before ns; for who would boast 
that he possesses a psychological insight which spreads 
out before him the workings of the human mind as 
plainly as if they were the workings of an ingenious 
machine in a factory ? " Vous voulez mecaniser I'edu- 
cation," said Glayre to Pestalozzi; and, as Pestalozzi 
himself said, " He hit the nail upon the head." Over- 
zealous disciples have boasted that Pestalozzi actually 
mechanized education — i.e., he understood the develop- 
ment of human nature in accordance with its organic 
laws, even in the entire range of its being, relations, and 
activity, and constructed the educational machine and 
set it in action accordingly. 

Method Insures Effectiveness of the Educator *s Ac- 
tivity. — But this laudation of the Pestalozzian univer- 
sal method not only resulted in subjecting the endeavors 
of Pestalozzi himself to the sharpest criticism, but the 
spirited disciples of naturalism in instruction were newly 
strengthened in their aversion to all methods. But the 
truth must, nevertheless, be advanced against these 
scorners of all method; even the most happily consti- 
tuted nature, the teacher by divine grace, is not restricted 
nor rendered ineffective by the directions of method; on 
the contrary, his activity is promoted and insured of its 
effectiveness. But the objection that the one natural 
method has, in fact, not yet been found, and perhaps 
never will be found, within any imaginable time, may 
easily be removed by reference to the fact that the peda- 
gogical labors of the past have produced results of great 
value to the work of instruction, which no teacher can 
neglect with impunity. JSTo one will assume that the 
highest stage in the development of method has been 



Treatment of the Subject-Matter. 95 

readied thereby; every one will admit that the newer 
directions signify only one step further on the way that 
leads to the highest goal — viz., the finding of the one 
natural method of teaching. 

The latter, in as far as it is known at present, may be 
sketched in a few v/ords. 

Two Antithetical Views Regarding Methodical 
Treatment. — We met with two sharply antithetical 
views as to the choice of material — formalism and ideal- 
ism'. The former inscribed " formal education" on its 
banner. The material of instruction was only a means 
to an end — viz., the formation of the understanding. 
The latter insists upon a valuable content in the mate- 
rial and upon the education of the dispositions. There 
are also two sharply antithetical views as regards the 
methodical treatment of the subject-matter — (1) didac- 
tic materialism and (2) psychological realism. The for- 
mer aims at the acquisition of as much knov/ledge as 
possible in the school, the latter at the methodical treat- 
ment of as much material as is thoroughly consistent 
v/ith mental health. 

<< As Much Knowledge as Possible/' the Mediasval 
Rule. — Didactic materialism marks the lowest stage of 
method in instruction. The pupil is compelled, whether 
he will or not, to work his way into the subject. That 
which is required of the mental power of the adult is 
also simply demanded of the boy's brain. This is the 
conception that ruled throughout the entire Middle 
Ages. The method of procedure in instruction con- 
formed exclusively to the nature of the object of instruc- 
tion, not to the nature of the one learning. The first 
isolated efforts to develop the subject of method ap- 
peared with Eatich and Comenius, and were directed 



g6 Outlines of Pedagogics. 

toward treating and presenting the material of instruc- 
tion with some reference to the mind of the scholar. 
The eighteenth century, a veritable century of pedagogy, 
brought to light a series of pedagogical systems (as after- 
ward |in philosophy) which attracted the attention of 
people in all stations of life, and permeated all litera- 
ture. The first of these efforts went to the extreme in 
that their devotees (philanthropists ') sought to shorten, 
sweeten, and flavor the w^ork of learning. The chief en- 
deavors of Pestalozzi and his disciples aimed to divide 
the subject of instruction in accordance with the needs 
of the pupil, and unfold and steel the power of the 
scholar on the material thus prepared. The movement 
which Pestalozzi started was so strong that it has made 
the following age what may be termed the age of so- 
called methods. The newer didactics seeks to remove 
this biassed preference for method and to advance the 
development of the curriculum; hence it would also do 
justice to the single educational elements themselves, 
and attribute to them an inherent value. 

Demands for Simplification Begins to Take the Place 
of " Rage for Methods.** — Recent didactics, however, 
has permitted an uncommon simplification to enter into 
the subject of method as compared with the constant 
desire and rage for methods that characterized former 
years. It has thoroughly cleared aw^ay everything that 
had falsely assumed the name of method, and has pro- 
duced a theory which, in its simplicity and clearness, 
parallels the true work of art, whose naturalness and 
simplicity never lead one to suspect what pains and 
what application it has cost the producer. The so-called 

1 The followers of Base.iow. 



Treatment of the Subject-Matter, 97 

Socratic, rational, developing, catechetic, demonstrative, 
practical, mechanical methods, etc., have been cleared 
away. Whatever recommends itself in these concep- 
tions as independent method must now take a more 
modest and befitting rank as a didactic form subordi- 
nate to the whole; in fact, even those didactic forms 
which Herbart recognized as real methods — viz., the 
analytic and synthetic — must be combined to a sys- 
tematic whole, or surrender their independence. 

Herbart's Theory made Clear by Ziller. — The great 
advantage of the newer niethodics consists in the fact 
that theory has found the way for practice. Formerly 
the great majority of teachers, even among Herbart's 
pupils, wondered at the network of abstract conceptions 
to be found in his Allgemeine Pddagogih, without know- 
ing what use to make of them. The apparent labyrinth 
of concepts was first transformed by Professor Ziller, of 
Leipzig, into a theory which can actually direct the prac- 
tice of instruction in the right course by means of a 
series of practical and adaptable imperatives. 

The Necessity for a Definite Articulation of Instruc- 
tion. — That the intellectual constitution of the pupil 
must be taken into consideration as the chief determi- 
native factor in the treatment of the material has already 
been repeatedly emphasized; for one is led at once into 
darkness and error as soon as he ceases to deduce the 
principles upon which he bases his method from the 
psychical process in the soul of the child. But by fol- 
lowing the directions which this process gives he arrives 
at a definite articulation of the instruction which corre- 
sponds to the growing interest of the pupil. This ne- 
cessity for a clear, definite articulation of the instruc- 
tion, based upon psychological grounds, is aptly set forth 



98 Outlines of Pedagogics, 

in the familiar words of Quintilian : " Pour water rap- 
idly into a vessel with a narrow neck and little enters; 
pour slowly, and but little at a time, and the vessel is 
finally filled." The "how much at a time" would, in 
general, be difficult to determine, since the individuality 
of the pupil and the nature of the material must be 
consulted. If the educator, however, inspects the ma- 
terial that has been laid out for a longer period of time 
(and he must do this if he does not wish to be depend- 
ent upon chance), he must first consider the division 
and arrangement of these connected masses into smaller 
wholes, such as may be treated with the pupil in a com- 
plete normal process of abstraction. Such a portion we 
designate as a " method-whole " ^ or " method-unit." 

The Aim of a Lesson to be Stated First. — After 
the method- wholes within a single branch of instruc- 
tion have been fixed upon the treatment of material 
then begins by presenting the aim^ of the lesson; it is 
intended to give the thoughts of the pupil a definite 
tendency and to arouse his expectation. It puts the 
pupil in mind of known things and processes, and opens 
to him at the same time a vision of something that is 
new and as yet unknown. The statement of the aim 
of the lesson, therefore, calls old ideas into conscious- 
ness, whose activity is indispensable for the understand- 
ing and assimilation of the new, and directs the will of 
the pupil to the solution of a problem to which he must 
devote all his energies. But it is of great value to the 
educative influence of the instruction if the pupil 
always knows what he is after, if his intellectual activ- 



' See De Grarmo's Essentials of Method, p. 75-77. 

^ To be distinguished, of course, from aim of instruction. 



Treatment of the Stihject-Matter, 99 

ity assumes from the beginning that impress of iuo7'h (in 
that it strives to attain a definite aim), which distin- 
guishes it plainly from any definite play. The pnpil 
engages in play as an end in itself; but he does not 
work for the sake of working nor to fill up the time, 
but in the hope of solving a problem that attracts and 
chains his attention. The statement of the aim of a 
lesson has achieved its purpose, if it has led the pupil 
from the beginning to regard the task that is to be ac- 
complished as important. The formulation of the aim 
is, therefore, neither an entirely easy task nor a matter 
of indifierence. 

The Process of Learning may be Summed Up in Two 
Activities : Apperception and Abstraction — If the aim 
of the lesson has been rightly put, it produces a flood of 
thoughts in the pupil at once. This is above all essen- 
tial if one expects to produce clear percepts from which 
to deduce accurate notions. In fact, the process of 
learning may be summed up in these two activities. 
From the percept to the concept or notion — this is the 
truth which Pestalozzi as clearly recognized and ex- 
pressed as Kant, who said : " Perceptions without gen- 
eral notions are blind; general notions without percep- 
tions are empty.^' The percept is a product of both ex- 
ternal and internal observation : the notion which can- 
not arise directly from the senses is a product of thought. 
Therefore the educator must provide himself with defi- 
nite answers to the two following questions : 

1. How do we obtain clear, distinct percepts ? 

2. How do we obtain clear, distinct notions ? 
Psychology alone gives an answer. It teaches us that 

the first question finds its solution in the process of ap- 
perception, the second in the process of abstraction. 



loo Outlines of Pedagogics, 

METHOD OF TEACHING. 

Percept. 

Apperception (Lange, '^Apperception : A Mono- 
graph on Psychology and Pedagogy ^^).^ 

Concept or Notion. 

Abstraction (Dorpfeld, "Denken und Gediicht- 
niss ''). 

Without Apperception there Can be no Abstraction. 
— Abstraction is only possible upon the ground of ex- 
perience which constantly presents to us material in the 
form of single, entirely individual concrete facts. The 
broader the concrete substratum, the more successful 
will be the formation of notions. Very often one must 
content himself with psychical or individual concepts, 
where there is not- a sufficient number of examples for 
perception at hand to introduce a normal process of ab- 
straction. The formation of logical concepts is in gen- 
eral a very slow and gradual process, which never fully 
comes to a close during a lifetime. 

The Method of Concept-formation the Basis of the 
Method of Teaching. — Now, wherever notions are to be 
formed, a natural method of instruction always conforms 
ta this normal process. In so far as the method of 
teaching succeeds in imitating the normal process of 
concept-formation, so far is it healthy, simple, and nat- 
ural. In so far as instruction departs from this process, 
it becomes involved' in unnaturalness, subtilities, and 
abnormal methods of procedure. Wherever a method 
proceeds in accordance with the nature of the human 
mind, genuine interest will appear spontaneously and 
faithfully accompany and further the instruction; wher- 

^ Translated by the Herbart Club. 



Treatment of the Subject-Matter, loi 

ever the educator does not trouble himself about the 
psychological conditions of learning, he will always need 
artificial aids to incite the attention and be a match for 
the pupil. 

Method must be Adapted to the Youthful Moods 
and Ideas. — If the pupil works under pressure, if he 
feels learning to be a burden, there can be no mental 
growth. It is otherwise where free interest prevails; 
then everything goes easily, teacher and pupils work 
with a will, and experience sincere joy in their labor. 
This is only possible, however, by means of an exact 
psychical adaptation and adjustment of the method to 
the youthful moods and ideas. Nature makes no leaps; 
neither should an instruction that proceeds in accord- 
ance with Nature. 

Wherever the psychical conditions, individual percep- 
tions, and general notions are kept in view, wherever 
one proceeds in accordance with the growth and con- 
densation of concepts from percepts, the method of in- 
struction will consist of two successive stages. Within 
a method-whole some concrete material of knowledge^ 
be it external or internal, will always be presented for 
the perception of the pupil; then follows the transfor- 
mation of this material into concepts. Both processes 
subdivide into two steps: the process of apperception 
into (1) the preparation of necessary, related, already 
known material, and (2) the presentation of the new 
ideas; the process of abstraction into (1) the comparison 
of all known cases, and (2) the extraction of the essen- 
tial and the generally valid. A final step then provides 
for the necessary application of the knowledge that it 
may become ability, power, which is always at command. 
Accordingly, the " theory of the formal steps of instruc- 



102 Outlines of Pedagogics, 

tion " distinguishes five steps, as shown by the following 

synopsis : 

FORMAL STEPS. 

I. Dorpfeld and Wiget. 

1. Perception (Percept). 

{a) Introduction. 
{h) Perception. 
Apperception. 

2. Thought (Notion). 

(a) Comparison). 
ip) Condensation. 
Abstraction. 

3. Application (Power). 

II. Herbart and Ziller ^ 

1. Clearness. 

{a) Analysis. 
{])) Synthesis. 

2. Association. 

3. System. 

4. Method (Function). 

III. Rein. 

1. Preparation. 

2. Presentation. 

3. Association. 

4. Condensation. 

5. Application. 

^ Analysis (as used by Herbart and Ziller) denotes merely anal- 
ysis of the ideas already present in the child's mind, that are 
related to the new material. Synthesis is the apperception of the 
new through the old. Together they produce * ' Clearness of the 
Particulars. System is Classification, and Method is Function, or 
Application. — V. L. 



Treatment of the Subject -Matter. 103 

With the above may be compared the designations 
given to the " formal steps '' by the following American 
writers : 

I. De Garmo.' 

I. Apperception (Sense-perception) (Concrete il- 
lustration). 

1. Preparation — Analysis. 

2. Presentation — Synthesis. 
II. Abstraction. 

3. Comparing and Uniting; or. Induction, 

Association (Socratic). 

4. Formulation of Notional — Deduction ; 

from which we descend again to par- 
ticulars. 
III. From Knowing to Doing — Application. 

C. A.McMurry.* 
I. Presentation. 

1. Preparation. 

2. Presentation. 
II. Elaboration. 

. 3. Association and Comparison. 

4. Generalization or Abstraction. 

5. Practical Application. 

Supplementary RemarJcs upon the Formal Steps of In- 
struction. 

The Application Does not Necessarily Conflict with 
Prescribed Forms of the Course of Study. — This Her- 
bartian principle is perhaps the most directly applicable 

^ Essentials of Method, Language-work below the High School — 
Primary Language-work. 
2 General Method, chap. viii. 



I04 Outlines of Pedagogics. 

of the three principles that refer especially to the ma- 
terial of instruction, because it deals with the independ- 
ent class-work of the teacher, and does not necessarily 
conflict with any of the prescribed or traditional forms 
of the curriculum. Its psychological foundation and 
general and theoretical phases have just been sufficiently 
presented. We shall now briefly consider the formal 
steps of instruction in their practical application. In 
so doing let us keep in mind the different terms by 
which they are known, since all possess a certain merit 
and are more or less suggestive. As a rule, however, we 
shall do well to use the terms Preparation, Presentation, 
Association, Generalization (including Classification), 
and Application, keeping constantly in mind that the 
first two are steps of the first chief stage, Apperception; 
the next two, steps in the second chief stage. Abstrac- 
tion, 

The Subject-matter for the Year Divided into a 
Series of Topics. — The approximate material for each 
year's work has been fixed upon in the curriculum. In 
this respect the teacher is necessarily somewhat limited. 
Within these limits, however, he should be granted 
abundant freedom ; his first task, accordingly, is to divide 
the subject-matter for the year into a series of suitable 
, method-wholes, as set forth on pages 97-98. The cri- 
terion of a well-chosen, methodical unit is the single, 
chief, general truth which is embodied in its content. 
Its treatment requires a regular process of generaliza- 
tion. It is not so many pages of the text-book, nor so 
many problems, nor even a single chapter or subject as 
presented by the writer. All that the book contains 
aside from that which is necessary to complete each new, 
chief process of generalization, belongs to the fifth step, 
practice and application. Hence the task of fixing upon 
the methodical units is one that requires care and re- 
flection. The sum of the method-wholes represents the 
total result that is to be attained within a given time. 
The compass of each method-whole, as regards time, 



Treatment of the Subject-Mat fer. 105 

canaot in general be determined. Let us, above all, 
beware of attempting to run through the five steps in 
each single hour or recitation. It is impossible to state, 
in general, whether the method-whole will occupy one, 
two, three, or more hours. This depends upon the 
branch of instruction and the development of the child. 
A method-whole in arithmetic, geometry, or physics may 
often be completed in an hour, while one in geography, 
history, or language may occupy several hours. The 
child will undoubtedly find less difficulty with the work 
in science, for example, after he has become accustomed 
to investigation. 

Statement of the Aim. — The teacher's next task is 
to present the material contained in the method- whole 
to the pupil. The question arises at once. What is the 
most suitable way in which to introduce the work ? 
The Herbartian practice generally places the " statement 
of the aim " at the head of the work upon each method- 
whole — a usage that is in direct opposition to the old 
practice of plunging straight into the subject-matter. 
But very often the method-wholes comprise the work of 
several days' recitation or several hours. In this case, 
after the statement of the main aim for the entire 
method-whole, it is necessary to present in succeeding 
hours subordinate or partial aims, or hour-aims. The 
psychological considerations that demand the statement 
of the aim have been sufficiently stated on page 98. 
The statement of the aim of the lesson may be (1) a 
sentence which simply sets forth what the work of the 
new method-whole or of the ensuing hour will cover; 
(2) a question to which the teacher expects no answer, 
but which serves at once to give a certain tendency to 
the pupil's thoughts; (3) a problem or example which 
introduces some new mathematical or scientific method- 
whole containing a general truth at which the child is 
to arrive by the processes of apperception and abstrac- 
tion. 

How the Aim Should be Stated.— The statement of 



io6 Outlines of Pedagogics, 

the aim of the lesson is one of the pedagogical tasks in 
which the teacher should show the greatest skill, tact, 
originalit}^, and freedom from fixed mechanical forms. 
Often the interest and success of an entire recitation de- 
pend upon the apt statement of the aim of the lesson. 
Accordingly, certain general rules must be observed. 
The statement of the aim must be simple and easily 
comprehensible. It should contain no unknown expres- 
sions or words, much less unknown conceptions. The 
statement of the aim must have a concrete content, and 
should never be merely formal ; this is the point in which 
the teacher is most likely to err. For example, " We 
shall continue reading to-day where we left off yester- 
day,^' is absolutely fruitless and purposeless. Better, 
" To-day we shall see what became of Eobinson after he 
was cast upon the island." The latter brings the child's 
thoughts at once to the required focus. Thoughts for- 
eign to the work in hand are suppressed, and only re- 
lated ideas busy the child's mind. This is the effect of 
the concrete content in the aim. The aim should be 
neither too scantily nor too broadly stated. In the first 
case the children still remain indifferent; in the second 
case the grasping of the chief point is rendered more 
difficult, and there is great danger that the pupils will 
anticipate too much. The statement of the lesson-aim 
should place the pupil in a state of expectation. If it 
is the chief aim of a complete method-whole it should ^ 
be so formulated that a preliminary discussion of the 
method-whole may naturally follow. In this case also 
it should bring the connection with the historical series 
either directly or indirectly to the child's consciousness, 
as demanded by the principle of concentration. As a 
rule the chief aim of a method-whole should be given 
first by the teacher, while the subordinate aims will gen- 
erally come spontaneously from the children and require 
but little correction. This privilege, at least, should 
never be denied them. The statement of the aim should 
be at the beginning of the hour or recitation, never after 



Treatment of the Subject-Matter, 107 

the recitation has begun. A new aim should not be in- 
troduced in the middle of the hour; that stated at the 
commencement of the recitation should comprehend the 
entire work of the lesson. Eepetition of the aim is 
generally necessary, at least once. But the teacher should 
avoid unnecessary repetitions. A glance at the class 
will tell him when the aim has taken effect and its ob- 
ject been attained. If the aim introduces a method- 
whole, it is followed at once by the first step. 

Preparation. — Preparation proceeds at once from some 
conception contained in the aim. It analyzes the men- 
tal content of the child for the purpose of getting at 
the possible-ideas upon the subject in hand that are 
already present in the child's mind. The purpose of 
preparation, therefore, is subservient to that of apper- 
ception; it aims to prepare the way for the acquisition 
of the new by calling up and ordering the related old. 
Hence preparation is analytic, while the following step, 
presentation, is synthetic. The two steps are to be 
clearly separated, however; for if they are constantly 
com-mingled during the instruction, the process of 
thought is checked and disturbed — the process of apper- 
ception does not achieve the desirable degree of clear- 
ness. This separation of preparation from presentation, 
however, does not exclude the possibility of dividing 
each into corresponding subdivisions, where the prepa- 
ration would otherwise be too extended— an arrangement 
that is exceedingly necessary and advantageous when 
the method-whole deals with long narratives or descrip- 
tions. Accordingly, in such cases as a method-whole in 
history, literature, geography, etc., well-defined portions 
of preparation may precede a corresponding portion of 
presentation. Another exception to the complete sepa- 
ration of preparation from presentation may be the " de- 
veloping presentation,^' described on page 110. 

Directly upon the statement and repetition of the aim, 
therefore, the teacher calls upon his pupils to relate 
what they already know of the subject. Sometimes a 



io8 Outlines of Pedagogics. 

question or two will be necessary to set them to reflect- 
ing more deeply. It is far better, at first, to let the 
pupil be as independent as possible in the matter. If 
he is disposed to tell all he knows about the matter at 
once, he should not be interfered with, even though the 
order of his narrative is bad. If his instruction is prop- 
erly directed from the moment he enters school, he will 
gradually acquire any orderly habit in speaking. But, 
in the preparation, let him be free. In behalf of unity 
in the circle of thought, the teacher should always aim 
to work with connected series of ideas rather than with 
disconnected, single ideas. For this reason the stickler 
for questioning is a dangerous being to the child^s 
power of independent, connected thought and expres- 
sion. After one pupil has fully expressed himself, others 
may add whatever they can to the general stock. A few 
questions on the part of the teacher serve to cast out 
whatever the different pupils may have mentioned that 
is foreign to the subject, and to call out a more definite 
expression on the points that were insufl&ciently repro- 
duced. The preparation may then be concluded by the 
orderly repetition of all that has been accepted. Here 
the teacher will do well to require the child to observe 
order and good expression as strictly as is consistent with 
the development of the child. 

The preparation is generally longer in such branches 
as history, geography, reading, and shorter in such 
branches as geometry, arithmetic, botany, etc. It should 
cover so far as possible the entire content of the method- 
whole ; but new material should not be drawn in with 
the old before the step of presentation ; otherwise the 
expectation and interest are weakened. This demand, 
however, should not suppress the child ^s inclination 
freely to anticipate, and to construct in his own mind a 
picture of what is to follow. This picture may or may 
not harmonize with the reality, but both agreement and 
contrast are favorable to the process of acquisition. In 
order that the circle of thought may be thoroughly 



Treatment of the Subject -Matter, 109 

analyzed with reference to the nev/ material about to be 
presented, exhaustive and extended considerations should 
be permitted. Non-essentials do not disturb the prepa- 
ration, and can be finally eliminated. The child^s ability 
at " rough-sketching " should be brought into action in 
the reproduction of his mental possessions wherever 
practicable. 

Presentation. — After the orderly repetition of the 
material brought to light in the preparation, the instruc- 
tion proceeds to the work of presenting the new. The 
material to be presented in a single method-whole can- 
not be assimilated by the child in a mass. The law of 
successive clearness ^ requires that it be presented and 
assimilated in well-defined portions. Hence the material 
contained in each method-whole must be subdivided by 
certain suitable points of rest, each portion constituting 
in itself a unit. The points of rest give opportunity for 
absorption and reflection. Each portion is to be treated 
separately and followed immediately by a connected re- 
production. Only after the latter has taken place should 
a familiar discussion of the material take place. Here 
the teacher takes the opportunity to correct false im- 
pressions, throw light upon the dark points that appear 
during reproduction, and call for a statement of omis- 
sions from others. Each distinct portion of material 
may then be summed up under some appropriate head- 
ing, which at the close of the hour may be entered in a 
blank book kept for the purpose. The completion of 
all the several parts of a method- whole calls for a brief 
total reproduction. 

The method of presentation is, of course, different for 
different branches. If the material appears in the form 
of a narrative, the latter should be free, objective, spirited, 
and adapted to the child's feeling. If the subject under 
consideration belongs to the strictly historical series, the 
total presentation and reproduction should be followed 

^ See De Garmo, Essentials of Method, p, 40. 



no Outlines of Pedagogics. 

by a discussion directed by the teacher's questions for 
the purpose of drawing out the child's judgment upon 
the valuable ethical or aesthetic relations contained in 
the method-whole. The child is led to a deeper insight 
into the true meaning and nature of events — an insight 
that must, of course, correspond to his own stage of de- 
velopment. If the aim of education in general, and of 
the historical series in particular, is not to be forgotten, 
this training of the child's ethical judgment through the 
historical should never be neglected nor superficially 
attempted. It is a task that requires the utmost care on 
the part of the teacher. This process of absorption, this 
deepening of the insight, should never be introduced be- 
fore the entire material of the historical method-whole 
has been presented. An ethical judgment can only be 
impartially developed when all the facts are known ; 
otherwise the child's natural tendency to hasty judgment 
is fostered. The teacher should never allow the process 
of reflection and absorption to lapse into mere, dry, 
superficial moralizing. 

In geography and the natural sciences presentation 
consists chiefly in observation and investigation of the 
subject of instruction, followed by a reproduction of the 
results of investigation. The child should be gradually 
accustomed to observe a fitting order in making his ob- 
servations, and to reproduce their results connectedly. 
Here, too, the headings are of great importance, and 
must be chosen with a view to later condensation and 
classification. In mathematics, presentation consists in 
the development of the solution of a typical concrete 
problem and the repetition of the solution. The initial 
problem must then be followed by others of the same 
nature, in order that a natural process of generalization 
may follow. 

In general, two forms of presentation may be distin- 
guished — (1) the narrative presentation and (2) the 
developing presentation. The latter requires the greater 
skill on the part of the teacher. The former is most 



Treatment of the Subject-Matter. 1 1 r 

useful in historical instruction, where the material is 
either related by the teacher or read from the book. 
But it is a poor form for universal application. It can- 
not sufficiently call out the self-activity of the pujoil, 
especially in such branches as the natural sciences, 
language, and mathematics. The developing presenta- 
tioii is applicable in all branches, and when skilfully 
handled gives the most satisfactory results. It is the 
only form in which the presentation m^ay be blended, as 
it were, with the first step, preparation. It leads the 
child to construct the desired results from his own ex- 
periences, and from that which his observations and 
reflection present to him. Here the teacher is the guide 
of the pupil in his endeavors at self-instruction. One 
danger, however, must be carefully avoided : the develop- 
ing presentation should never lapse into a mere chain of 
leading questions. He applies the developing form of 
presentation best who questions the least. An occasional 
question is unavoidable, and, indeed, desirable. A single 
remark or word on the part of the teacher should suffice 
to put the pupil on the right track when he has gone 
astray. 

Eeproduction should be free and originally expressed 
on the part of the pupil. The teacher should avoid 
interrupting the child^s flow of thought, except in cases 
of urgent necessity. The number of reproductions 
should be sufficient to insure that the material has been 
well impressed. Presentation, the same as preparation, 
should make constant use of rough-sketching. The 
course of presentation is essentially the same whether 
a book is used or not. If the presentation is made 
through the book, the work may be studied after having 
been first before the class as a whole. In either case, 
where the presentation occupies several hours, each hour 
should be opened after the statement of the aim with the 
repetition of the previous day's work. 

Association. — The third step (the first of abstraction) 
begins with the repetition of the synthetic material, and 



112 Outlines of Pedagogics, 

its comparison and association with the old. This asso- 
ciation, however, should not take place idly and without 
a plan. Only valuable associations, such as subserve the 
aim of the method -whole, are permissible. Especial 
value is to be attached to associations by means of which 
the child is finally brought to abstract the general truths 
contained in the concrete material of the method -whole. 
All observed cases are compared and their like elements 
noted. The new historical event is compared with the 
old, and the similarity clearly expressed. One form, 
country, process, character, or event is compared with 
another. 

The compared objects must always be known; especi- 
ally fruitful is the comparison with objects from the 
child^s own environment, intercourse, or experience. As 
can be readily seen, the third step, association, is followed 
closely and immediately by — 

Generalization (Classification).— The two steps, in 
fact, belong to one process — abstraction. Generalization 
first provides for the clear formation of the notional, 
of the concept. It brings the process of abstraction to 
completion. This requires (1) the separation of the 
notional from the concrete; (2) the formulation of the 
statement of the notional in language; (3) the placing 
of the concept thus attained in its proper place in already 
formed series of concepts (system), i.e., its classification; 
(4) the repetition and fastening of the concept. The 
latter includes the writing of the concept in the form 
of rules, maxims, etc., in a so-called system-book, with 
illustrations as examples where necessary. Where several 
subordinate associations or generalizations are to be 
drawn from the method-whole beside the main truth, as 
may frequently occur, each association should be followed 
directly by the corresponding generalization without the 
intervention of other associations. 

The law, truth, or rule, i.e. — the notional — is to be 
brought out by skilful questions, and sharply and com- 
pletely separated from the concrete material, so that it 



Treatment of the Subject-Matter, 1 1 3 

is independent of all individual ideas or concepts. The 
notional is, in fact, not se])arated from the concrete so 
much as distinguished from it, for it is still dependent 
upon and connected with the latter. In the historical 
series the notional generally finds expression in an 
88sthetical, ethical, social, or iDolitical maxim; in mathe- 
matics and language it culminates in a rule, and in 
science in the establishment of genera, families, etc., in 
classification, and in formulas. In both science and 
geography the fourth step presents in a brief and concise 
form the essential generalized results of the observations. 
The drawing of an exact map presents the best geograph- 
ical system. We see therefore that in establishing the 
system of classification, the fourth step must constantly 
refer to past method -wholes; in fact, classification is 
frequently possible only after several method - wholes 
have been completed. When the general truth, maxim, 
or formula has once been obtained the next step is — 

Application. — This step has a twofold end in view: 
(1) the knowledge must obtain a certain degree of sta- 
bility and mobility so that the mind shall be capable of 
commanding its services at will; (2) it must be diligently 
exercised upon practical questions, so that the child- 
associates its use with the needs of life. There are 
various exercises of this kind. The series of ideas or 
concepts may be repeated forward and backward, from 
different starting-points and under different circum- 
stances. The child may be required to descend from 
the concept to the individual perceptions (deduction) 
and vice versa (induction). In the case of the historical 
instruction examples may be gathered from history or 
the child^s life which either conform or do not conform 
to a given maxim. In the various branches of language- 
instruction, examples may be sought that conform to 
some grammatical rule, and conversely the pupil may 
determine which rule governs a given form, etc. Written 
and spoken exercises conform to the grammatical system 
which he has thus far attained, In mathematics and 



114 Outlines of Pedagogics. 

the natural sciences, the geometric, arithmetical, and 
physical formulas and laws may be applied in solving 
practical problems and tasks, or a physical apparatus 
may be drawn to conform to certain given conditions. 
In geography a general map may be sketched from 
memory, or commercial, physical and political facts ap- 
plied in imaginary cases. 

Formal Steps must be Followed in All Instruction 
without Exception. — Because of their formal nature the 
formal steps of instruction have a universal application. 
Herbart himself said : " These rules are universal, and 
must be followed in all instruction without exception.^* 
But let us not begin to be fearful that our freedom and 
individuality in instruction are to be infringed by con- 
forming to steps that bear the often-dreaded term, 
" formal,^' and that claim a universal validity. They 
are simply guides that show how instruction must con- 
form to the mental processes of the child in acquiring 
knowledge. The knowledge is not acquired until these 
steps have been taken, either consciously or uncon- 
sciously, skilfully or unskilfully, on the part of the 
teacher. The successful teacher, therefore, will find 
that the formal steps accord with much of his past prac- 
tice, and that a clear and systematic knowledge of their 
requirements will render his future labors more fruitful. 
But let us emphasize once more that, within the inevi- 
table psychical laws, the formal steps of instruction 
guarantee the teacher a far-sighted individuality and 
a rational freedom, such as slavish conformity to any 
other more specific metliod can never furnish. He is at 
liberty to determine their application to suit the needs 
of each single branch and to harmonize with the age and 
capacity of his pupils. Within each single step he is 
free to apply a great variety of devices and subordinated 
methods, to give free play to his ingenuity, and hence 
to relieve the monotony of instruction whenever it ap- 
pears. 



special Didactics. iiS 

SPECIAL DIDACTICS. 

Special Didactics Entirely Dependent on General 
Theory of Instruction, — It is the task of special didac- 
tics to point out how the underlying principles of general 
didactics affect the organization of each single branch. 
Special didactics is entirely dependent on general 
didactics. This dependency must be carried out; it 
must be everywhere apparent; it must be evident even 
in the smallest part. Only under this condition can we 
claim to possess a system — a well-arranged organism. 
Only then do we arrive at a scientifically established 
theory of instruction, leave the standpoint of subjective 
caprice, and approach a knowledge of objective truth. 
Without the firm substructure, such as is vouched for 
by the results of general didactics, special didactics be- 
comes exceedingly volatile, and scatters in as many frag- 
ments as there are subjects and ways of instruction. 

Not the Method of Scientific Research, but One Based 
on Psychological Laws. — If, as some think and claini^ 
every branch of instruction is to develop its own course^ 
its own methods, we shall finally be confronted by a 
motley miscellany, which would present manifold waj^s 
in which man seeks to press on to the knowledge of 
things, it is true, but which sets the nature, growth, and 
development of the youthful mind aside. But one 
should not conceive that the characteristic features of 
the branches of knowledge are to be extinguished, sup- 



ii6 Outlines of Pedagogics » 

pressed, or crowded out by subjecting the principles of 
special didactics to tbose of general didactics. By no 
means — this attempt would be just as useless as foolish. 
The ways of professional science and school science are 
very different. Here also the deeply-rooted distinction 
between the special sciences in their professional aspect 
and the sciences in the schools becomes glaringly ap- 
parent. Above all, a sharp distinction must be made; 
the ways which scientific research pursues in the dif- 
ferent spheres, the methods by means of which the man 
of learning seeks to invade the kingdom of the unknown 
and the unexplored, cannot be the same in all respects 
as those which must guide the youthfid mind that it 
may obtain an education. Therefore, he who aims to 
determine the course of procedure for each branch in 
the school by proceeding in accordance with the method 
of scientific research will always find himself in the 
closest touch and most intimate accord with the results 
of science, it is true, but will always conflict with the 
psychological conditions under which the youthful mind 
is accustomed to perform its functions. If one has sci- 
ence alone in view, he argues the acquisition of knowl- 
edge merely from the standpoint of the scientific subject, 
without regard to psychical processes in the individual. 
iVnd yet one must proceed from the latter, if he wishes 
to educate; from the former only, if he merely wishes to 
penetrate into the knowledge of things -and disseminate 
science. 

General Didactics Deals with the Principles to 
which Methods must Conform — Therefore, the fun- 
damental method to ■ he applied^ does not indicate the 
nature of the science, but the nature of the mind. 
General didactics teaches the general conditions under 



special Didactics. 117 

which the educator can so regulate the instruction of 
the youth that it shall be educative. It presents the 
principles to which the course of each separate branch 
must conform, but without neglecting the peculiar 
nature of the latter, even in the least. The principles 
remain, under all circumstances, the same. If they are 
true, they are, as fundamental laws of the human mind, 
eternal and unchangeable, the same as fundamental laws 
of Nature in general. But in the application to dif- 
ferent materials their conformation changes, although 
their nature remains the same. Therefore, it is only 
correct to submit the methodical treatment of each 
subject of instruction to the respective special science 
when the latter at the same time accepts the underlying 
pedagogical principles as its universal guiding stand- 
ards. 

Scientific Truth not Sacrificed to Pedagogic Ar- 
rangement. — The latter, it is true, are not recognized 
by all as conclusive, either because the historical-philo- 
sophical foundations are doubted, or the psychological 
suppositions in their metaphysical and empirical phases 
censured, or because some will not allow themselves to 
have anything to do with pedagogy in general, and ex- 
pect from it only an enfeeblement, an obscuration of 
the specific character of science, which must, above all^ 
be retained. But we also recognize the latter claim in 
full. Scientific truth should never be sacrificed to some 
preconceived, theoretical, pedagogical arrangement, but 
the science in its professional character should never 
stand in the foreground; it must be subject to the 
authority of the general laws that lie at the foundation 
of didactics. Even with this restriction there is still 
scope enough to quiet all fears that violence may be 



1 1 8 Outlines of Pedagogics, 

done to the individual sciences between the wheels of 
the pedagogical mill. 

Assured Results of Science Comprehended under 
Common Points of View. — Special didactics, also, 
should never indulge in the illusion that it is able alone 
to provide for the organic construction of the separate 
branches of study; it must always be referred to the 
assistance of the exact science — although, of course, it 
must not leave its task to the latter alone. The danger 
of an endless sundering, or of an entirely one-sided 
prosecution of studies lies but too near; didactics which 
gathers the scattered, unites the separate, and harmo- 
nizes the antithetical elements, must always ba heard. 
Pedagogical didactics appears in the midst of the present 
great and constantly increasing differentiation and spe- 
cialization of the sciences as a gatherer. With calm re- 
flection, and free from all scientific factions, it extracts, 
accepts and applies those assured results of science that 
are necessary for the education of the youth, and always 
keeps the whole in view, in spite of all details that 
draw the attention into byways. From this standpoint 
the task of special didactics appears in truth as a great 
and difficult one. The different rays from the various 
departments of knowledge focus here. Comprehended 
under common points of view, they present a whole, a 
system, an order which does not desire to point out new 
roads for exact science (although this is by no means 
excluded) so much as to place the pupil in possession of 
a reliable mental content, and the proper method of its 
acquisition. 

Pedagogic Ideas Fundamental — One should never 
forget that pedagogics and didactics are scientific sub- 
jects, and not mere facilities, as it were, that could be 



special Didactics, 119 

drilled in; they are scientific subjects in so far as they 
rest upon fundamental conceptions. These underlying 
ideas are fundamental, for they are based upon ethical, 
historical - philosophical, and psychological reflections. 
The methodical treatment of the separate branches, 
accordingly, can only be submitted to the care of the 
special sciences when the latter, armed with an exact 
knowledge of the subject, adapt their didactic treatment 
to the fundamental ideas, and thus become the necessary 
complement of general and special didactics. The 
latter, which are concerned with a large number of sub- 
jects, can never enter into the details as thoroughly as 
each branch of science does for itself. Under the above- 
mentioned condition we bid the co-operation of the 
speciel sciences welcome. On the other hand, whenever 
they attempt to free themselves from the general foun- 
dation for the purpose of building independently, we 
regard the work as fatal, because it creates a chaos of 
disconnected precepts that mutually check, if they do 
not entirely remove, one another^s effects. 

Psychical Laws Control Both the Personality of the 
Teacher and the Individual Methods.— Just as the prop- 
osition, "Every teacher must have his own method,^' 
is valid only in a certain sense as regards the personality 
of the teacher, so the proposition, "'Each branch of 
instruction has its own method,^^ has only a very limited 
validity. In either case one is far from true science, 
which refers both the personality of the teacher and 
the individual sciences as soon as they enter into the 
service of education, to the psychical laws that lie at 
the foundation of the development of the youthful 
mind. No natural education whatever is conceivable 
without a careful consideration of these laws. 



I20 Outlines of Pedagogics, 



THE THEORY OF GUIDANCE, 

Training and Government the Two Departments of 
Guidance. — We generally distinguish two departments 
in the subject of guidance: (1) The theory of traifmig 
(moral training) and (2) the theory of government. 
Government comprehends more the outer, training 
more the inner measures for guidance; the former is 
directed to the present, the latter looks to the future; 
the former will above all else effect external order, 
such as every well - regulated community, and hence 
also the school community, requires; the latter aims to 
produce some effect upon the disposition, and to provide 
for the formation of character. This influence is the 
essential factor, in comparison with which all those 
measures that are not directly connected with the for- 
mation of the disposition and character seem to be of 
less importance. These latter are comprehended under 
the term "government,^' the former under the term 
" training." In practice the measures adopted by both 
often coincide ; in this case the boundary between them 
is unnoticeable. Theoretically, however, it is of value 
to the educator to be able to review his measures suit- 
ably, to judge of their range, and to be prepared to 
make the finest distinctions. 

I. THEORY OF TRAINING. 

Instruction not the Only Task of the School. — If 

the instruction is managed in the manner above de- 



The Theory of Guidance, 121 

scribed, its influence upon the education of the will, and 
hence upon the formation of the character, may become 
very effective. But even if the instruction has met all 
the requirements placed upon it, the school has not yet 
by any means discharged its appointed task. The work 
of instruction is, in fact, prominent; but it is not the 
only task. 

Guidance Aids Formation of Character Directly 

It is assisted by guidance, the educative activity in the 
narrower sense, which constitutes an effective aid in at- 
taining the proposed end. The indirect formation of 
character should find an efficient support in the direct. 
^^ Educate so that the pupil will guide himself, choosing 
the good and rejecting the evil;" this, according to 
Herbart, is the formation of moral character. The 
elevation to a self-conscious personality should without 
doubt be effected in the disposition of the pupil through 
his own activity; it would be folly for the educator to 
attempt to create the very essence of the power that 
underlies this self-conscious elevation. But he must 
hold it possible to place the power which is already at 
hand, and which is necessarily true to its own nature, 
in such a condition that it can be relied upon to accom- 
plish the moral elevation of the individual. The edu- 
cator must regard it as the chief office of his endeavors 
to bring about, establish, and further the permanent 
activity of this power. 

The Will to be Placed in the Service of Moral In- 
sight, — We proceed from the thought that the activity 
of the will is to receive a definite tendency toward the 
good. The educator should provide that all future ac- 
tivity of the will bears the stamp of a personality that 
has placed its volition exclusively in the service of the 



122 Outlines of Pedag ogics . 

moral ideas. The ultimate aim of education is directed 
to the formation of an ethical character. Character is 
not an original fruit of the intellectual life; neither is 
it one that ripens easily or under all circumstances. 
Otherwise, why should this fruit be so rare ? 

Conscience the Sum of the Moral Maxims of Man. 
— The educator must investigate exactly the conditions 
under which a character, especially a moral character, 
develops. Here psychology is an important aid to him. 
The central point of moral development is the forma- 
tion of maxims, of practical principles. We determine 
the degree of One's culture by that which he considers 
as bidden or forbidden, by his maxims. That man 
stands upon the lowest stage of culture whose maxims 
are only maxims of sensual gratification, who seeks 
merely' the sensually pleasurable, avoids merely the 
sensually disagreeable. We regard the maxims of v/is- 
dom, of the useful, of the becoming, of the fitting and 
unfitting as standing upon a higher plane. The moral 
maxims that have to do with the will itself without 
regard to foreign motives, and the sum of whose con- 
tents we call conscience or practical insight, stand upon 
the highest plane. 

The Subjective and Objective Phases of Character. 
— Now the different maxims may agree with or contra- 
dict one another. If the latter is the case, that maxim 
will be followed which has the greatest power in the 
mind. A contest, a reflective comparison of the worth 
of the various principles, precedes the decision. Thus 
by degrees an order or system of the maxims is pro- 
duced. The consistency and uniformity of the will, 
which constitute the essence of character, rest upon the 
subjection of the entire volitional activity to this system, 



The Theory of Guidance 123 

A character whose supreme principles are the moral 
ideas, and which, therefore, subjects its entire volition 
to the voice of conscience, is a moral character. We 
distinguish tv/o phases: (1) single acts of the will, or a 
manifold volition produced by the desires; (2) a general 
volition, i.e., a volition that is self-developing in the 
mass of apperceived ideas. The former is that which 
is determinable, the latter is that which determines; 
the former is the objective^ the latter the subjective 
phase of the character. This distinction is important 
for training. 

Training must Come to the Aid of Instruction to 
Form a Character. — The first presupposition is that 
efficiency and vigor of the will, of the inner activity, be 
present. Instruction seeks to secure this efficiency by 
the presentation of numerous "pictures of the will''^ in 
ideal intercourse, history, literature, etc. But can the 
task of training be based upon this work ? Here it 
would seem as if human power were powerless to do or 
make, and must be content to look on. But this is not 
the case. It is true that education itself can make no 
alterations so far as inherited physical and intellectual 
disposition is concerned, but it will still be able to 
prevent evil influences, just as the educator is able to 
accomplish a great deal that at first appeared impossi- 
ble as regards the pupil's position and manner of life. 
Many wishes and inclinations to whose gratification the 
mode of life has accustomed the child, many aspirations 
and sentiments which have their foundation in the con- 
ditions under which he grows up or in the distinctive 
views of his class, appear ineradicable; and yet, through 
the determinative influence of the educator a great deal 
can be checked and removed. Desire and love for a 



124 Outlines of Pedagogics. 

great mauy things can be generated. In fact^ instruc- 
tion will also be helpful here by means of that which it 
teaches the child ; but although it succeeds in convinc- 
ing the pupilof the untenableness of its prejudices and 
aspirations, the newly-acquired ideas will still often 
be insufficiently powerful to suppress certain evils to 
which the scholar has been accustomed from childhood. 
In this case the measures necessary for training must 
come to the aid of instruction. 

The Educator cannot Control all Influences on the 
PupiPs Will.— Of course, both instruction and train- 
ing are sometimes compelled to give up trying to 
counteract successfully the more powerful conditions 
and obstructions over which they have no control; 
these gave the pupiFs will a tendency which runs coun- 
ter to the purpose of education before instruction be- 
gan, and their influence never ceases. The educator 
has no power whatever over these forces that are in 
part invisible; he cannot control the occult coadjutors 
of education. If they are mightier than the systematic 
measures of the educator, he can only hope that unfore- 
seen events and changes will enter the inner and outer 
life of the child, and overpower everything in the dis- 
position which opposes his efforts. Many a one has 
been converted only by the harsh blows of fortune, by 
an unsuspected radical change of his condition in life, 
by an intimate friendship, by absorption in religious 
thoughts and feelings, by great convulsing events. It 
is the business of the educator to avail himself of such 
occurrences in the life of the pupil as long as he stands 
at his side, and to provide that the convulsion of the 
child^s inner life lead to a transformation in accordance 



The Theory of Guidance, 125 

with the purpose of education, and that the influence of 
the experience be made as deep and lasting as possible. 

Cultivation of an Efficient Objective Will by Sys- 
tematic Self -activity.— The objective side of the char- 
acter appears first; accordingly the care of the educator 
must be directed to the cultivation of an efficient ob- 
jective will. Hence it is necessary to give opportunity 
for various actions that correspond to the moral law. 
We are not speaking in favor of a vast deal of activity, 
but of a systematic regular activity, be it at first only 
in play. The regimen of the family with its occupa- 
tions, commissions, mutual services, etc., offer an espe- 
cially favorable opportunity; but there is also no lack 
of opportunities for various activities, and hence for 
training the will in the school-life. Here we have in 
mind the school-works and all the activities which a 
well-arranged school-life brings with it. These various 
activities, although often apparently insignificant, are 
instituted for the sake of their educative value, and 
clothed with some official dignity in order to make 
them more effective. We have also in mind the works 
in the school-garden and the school workshop. Here 
every successful act constitutes a source of future voli- 
tion and action; for the successful deed is at the same 
time a school for the courage. Although the way ap- 
pears shorter, the task easier to a child of courage, the 
educator still knows that evil spirits have freer play in 
the spiritless, faint-hearted, cowardly dispositions, and 
on this account regards courage as a welcome companion 
in his work. 

As Regards Development of Fixed Habits, the In- 
fluence of the Home is Greater than that of the 
School. — Just as the educational effect of the home is 



126 Outlines of Pedagogics. 

greater in proportion to the constancy of its regimen, so 
also the school not only has the means of developing 
the virtues of love of order, punctuality, and diligence, 
by the constancy of its order and the regularity of its 
life, but also becomes thereby a school of the will. 
That which the school is able to accomplish as regards 
the development of fixed habits, however, appears small 
in comparison with the influence of the home. On the 
other hand, it controls another means that is of special 
importance for our purpose, viz., the school community. 

School-life a Necessary Transition from the Family 
Circle to the Future Social Life. — Although in the 
family common joy and common woe, common work 
and common recreation exercise a great influence upon 
the formation of the child^s view of life and the ten- 
dency of the will, — an influence which, be it injurious or 
beneficial, continues to be effective throughout the 
entire life, — the narrow limitations of the family life 
often contrast so sharply with the gayety and diversity 
in the world that a direct transition from the one 
to the other implies great dangers. Here the school 
offers itself as mediator between these two extremes, 
as an institution that presents in a form adapted to 
the youth a sort of initiation of the future social life. 
The larger circle of companions of the same age, whom 
the pupil finds in the school, will make the latter a fit 
institution to effect the transition from the family to 
the world. 

The School More Influential than the Home for the 
Acquisition of the Full Strength of Character. — Fur- 
thermore, if the full strength of character can only 
be acquired in the stream of life, the initial steps 
toward its acquirement are most suitably taken in a 



The Theory of Guidance. 127 

circle which stands mid-way between the family and 
the great circle of human society. This is the school 
community, in which there is no lack of the frictions 
so necessary for the formation of character. Here^, 
especially, one finds that active intercourse upon the 
playground, in the gymnasium, during rambles and 
excursions, on holidays and at celebrations, which calls 
out the child's own activity — a result so important for 
the training of the will. Many errors will be more 
easily removed here than in the family. When on 
these occasions the arrogant and stubborn youth is left 
unnoticed, the vain and visionary one shamed, the 
proud humbled, the thoughtlessly awkward derided, the 
lazy hustled along, the timid encouraged, and the deli- 
cate hardened, the effect of such educational measures 
is so much the more forcible because their application 
was spontaneous. It is true that real errors may also 
develop in this social life (as, for example, the mis- 
chievous nature that finds pleasure in rendering others 
uncomfortable or ridiculous, or the one that is ambitious 
to place himself in the foreground); but this is no 
ground against emphasizing the importance of jnst this 
educational factor, for various means of eradicating 
such errors are at the command of the judicious 
teacher. 

The School a Preparation for the Duties of Social 
Life. — Moreover, the life of the school community com- 
pels the individual to subordinate himself to the inter- 
ests of the whole, that the lively feeling of fellowship 
does not permit the errors of intolerance, dogmatism, 
lust of power and selfishness to prevail. By fostering 
this feeling, the child is also prepared for the inter- 
course of after-life, in which the individual only finds 



128 Outlines of Pedagogics. 

his proper place when he feels that he is a member of 
various larger and smaller social communities/ in which 
he only fulfils his task in life by participating in the 
interests and endeavors of his contemporaries according 
to the measure of his power, not by retiring in selfish 
narrow-mindedness. The school educates for civil life, 
in that it educates for the school-life; its effect is that 
of a united whole, which it is. The individual should 
attach himself to this whole; he must subordinate him- 
self to the entire body and take his proper place as one 
of its members. The school is to the pupil a state, a 
small corporate body, which he can understand and 
survey at a glance, in whose service he learns how one 
should serve the whole and feel himself in harmony 
with the whole, how the entire body stands higher and 
is of much more worth and importance than the in- 
dividual with his pretentious claims than the ego with 
its selfishness. Therefore, in the school there are no 
exclusive privileges, no exceptions, no partial prefer- 
ences ! 

The School must Aim to be an Ethical Commu- 
nity. — The ideal to which the school must aspire is the 
fusion of the school community to a united ethical per- 
sonality, whose head is the educator or the community 
of educators. All those impulses will also be felt here 
that constantly incite the individual as a member of an 
ethical community; above all, the sympathetic feelings, 
which constitute the foundation of genuine benevolence, 
and a common spirit, which will be of a moral nature 
if the community stands in the right relations to the 
educator. The better elements will then obtain the 
control and hold the bad elements in check. Of course, 
if the educator has not understood how to bring about 



The Theory of Guidance, 129 

the proper confidential relations between himself and 
his pupils, the state of affairs is reversed in that he is 
regarded as the natural enemy of youth. In this way 
a great many errors arise which threaten to reverse the 
educational effect. Here it becomes evident Jioio im- 
portant a part the personality of the educator plays. 

The Personality of the Teacher Exerts the Most 
Powerful Silent Educational Influence. — One may say, 
in fact, that the entire educational centre of gravity lies 
in the personality of the teacher. If he is candid and 
true, conscientious and competent, consistent and just, 
if he has command of himself in all situations and in all 
cases, if he is neither malicious nor inclined to anger — 
in short, if he is a complete man, the dark forces cannot 
thrive in the community of the school. Thus it be- 
comes clearly evident that it would be a foolish under- 
taking to attempt an ethical education merely with the 
aid of instruction. The character of the teacher, his 
example in judging and acting, his conduct both in 
doing and permitting, are of such great significance 
that even the most carefully devised method is unable 
to remove or balaD.ce the errors and defects in the per- 
sonality of the educator. Uninterruptedly and uninten- 
tionally, as Ziller has shown, the example of the educator 
exerts either an elevating or a depressive influence upon . 
the inner life of each individual pupil. The silent forces 
of his influence is almost as important as the force of "^ 
those relations under whose combined effect ethical 
personality develops ; hence, it surely is not surpassed 
by the formative influence of the instruction, in so far 
as the will and the disposition of the pupil are con- 
cerned. This appreciation of the force of personality, 
however, should produce neither an under- valuation of 



130 Outlines of Pedagogics. 

methodical practice nor a contempt for all pedagogical 
reflections; on the contrary, the two factors are of equal 
value. 

The Necessity of Pedagogic Study as Great as 
Perfection of the Personality. — IS^o natural educator 
is so gifted through divine favor from the beginning, as 
to be able to reach the highest results entirely Y*dthout 
the aid of all methodical schooling, and there v/ill never 
be a method so wonderful as to be able to supplant the 
power of strong personality. Therefore, tlie educator 
who undertakes his oflEice in earnest will constantly 
direct his attention to the perfection of the method of 
instruction, and at the same time labor to develop and 
perfect . his own personality, because so many factors 
that are important for the success of direct education 
depend upon his conduct, his example, and his appear- 
ance. 

Devices for the Promotion of Fellow-feeling in 
School. — There are still other devices at the command 
of the educator for awakening, fostering, and preserving 
a healthy spirit and life in the community of the school, 
and which furnish an especially advantageous approach 
to the hearts of the children. These are the scliool 
celebrations and holidays, the school-ivalks and school- 
journeys. Their value is exceedingly great. In the 
first place, they offer many opportunities for the self- 
activity of the pupil; then they also give opportunity 
for the exchange of other thoughts than those with 
which the instruction is occupied. Common joys, rec- 
reations, and exertions not only unite teacher and 
scholars, but also strengthen the fellowship of the school 
companions. 



The Theory of Guidance. 131 

School Devotions Further Morality. — Still another 
form of school observance is of especial importance, be- 
cause it is of great value in the formation of the ethical 
will. Morality will necessarily remain a wretched plant 
of unnatural growth if its religious consecration is 
wanting, if it is not fostered and nourished by a trust in 
God. But as the religious interest finds not only its 
expression, but also its nourishment in the religious 
services of the community, so also regular school devo- 
tions that are in unison with the feelings and aspirations 
of the [child^s heart may be effective in furthering his 
religious and moral life. 

The Power of the Single Acts of Willing must be 
Strengthened by Habit — ^Those means that have thus 
far been discussed and fixed upon as necessary measures 
of guidance in the formation of character affect chiefly 
its objective side. They extend only to the single acts 
of the will that are called forth by the educative in- 
fluence, and whose effect upon the formation of char- 
acter is greater the less these acts are isolated, the more 
their power is strengthened by habit. Now, if the sub- 
jective side of the character, a general volitional activity 
rooted in the prevailing circle of thought, develops 
spontaneously in accordance with the laws of the mental 
life from the single acts of the will, education should 
not neglect this process of abstraction. 

The Objective Phase of Character Mainly a Result 
of Foreign Influences. — That which the objective 
phase of the character has gained by a systematic and 
intelligent guidance, by watchful and constructive care^ 
is at first only the result of a foreign influence. When 
the pupil has been brought to regard his own moral 
culture as a serious and important affair, training and 



132 Outlines of Pedagogics. 

instruction in combination with the child^s growing 
knowledge of the world can cause a moral fervor to 
penetrate his entire circle of thought; they can then 
provide that the pupiFs idea of the moral order of the 
world be constantly associated on the one hand with 
his religious ideas, on the other hand with his introspec- 
tion. Then training may withdraw, and the further 
development of the character be safely left to the pupil's 
own work. 

The following synopsis gives a brief review of the ar- 
rangements which training may institute and carry into 
effect to further the culture of an ethical will : 

Arrangement of the School-life as Sustained hy a 
Common Interest. 

1. School devotions and religious services for children. 

2. School celebrations of all kinds. 

3. School-walks and school-journeys. 

4. Offices or duties (various functions to be performed 
in the garden, workshop, schoolroom and school library). 

5. The preparation of character sketches (Individu- 
alization).^ 

Moral Character as a Fixed Possession is the Result of 
Ethical Self -activity — The perfection of the personality 
should, and must be the work of one's own insight and 
free choice, as has already been emphasized. As long as 
this is not the case there is no guarantee that other, 
newer, and perhaps more powerful influences than the 
former will not suddenly overthrow all that has been at- 
tained. This is to be prevented by the cultivation of 
the subjective side of the character; the moral maxims 

1 Which rests entirely in the hands of the teacher, of course. 



The Theory of Guidance. 133 

should attain sucli a mastery in tlie soul of the pupil 
that everything is measured by them. But the firm 
establishment of the practical principles, of course, will 
only be reached in the period of independent action — a 
period that lies beyond the range of school education. 
The educator, therefore, can only exert a limited influ- 
ence upon its formation. He can prepare the way and 
lay the foundation; but the acquisition of the subjectiye, 
moral character, as a fixed possession, is the result of 
every man^s own labor. How could it be otherwise ? 
Here we have to do with an internal process of develop- 
ment which advances but slowly, and which never entire- 
ly terminates even in the noblest and best character. 

How Maxims are Formed.— The subjective phase of 
the adult character appears in the form of firm prin- 
ciples as opposed to the confused host of desires and 
resolutions. But it requires a long process of develop- 
ment. The imperceptible beginnings are made in the 
first moments of the incipient self-observation. Erom 
this time on, precepts and rules appear, which correspond 
to the importance of the previous inclinations, habits, 
and activities; in proportion as the education progresses 
these precepts become utiiversal maxims or general rules 
for all future cases. Thus, reflection brings the process 
of generalization and subsumption into activity by means 
of which the individuars own body of laws in the form 
of a system of principles develops naturally to a greater 
universality. 

Through Guidance the Inner Moral Standard is Sup- 
ported. — Is it not natural that training should always be 
vigilant and ready to accompany with council and deed 
the important formations that take place in the inner 
life of the pnpil in accordance with natural laws ? Is it 



1 3 4 Outlines of Pedagogics . 

not a common experience that maxims and the require- 
ments of the moral laws are often well understood, but 
gain no influence over the will ? Does not the pupil 
easily go astray because the deed that has once succeeded 
but too easily becomes the source of another similar act 
of the will ? He who has often so successfull}^ gained 
his point in pursuing a certain advantage, who has often 
enjoyed the reputation of wisdom by following some se- 
ductive precedent, who under favorable circumstances, 
has often found the right help through bad intercourse, 
can easily become a different person as to his inclina- 
tions and purposes than the educator desires. But very 
little is required to debase the inner, moral standard, so 
that the maxims of wisdoms receive the first place, the 
moral disposition the second place. The guidance of 
the educator can overcome this danger by furnishing 
protection and support, by appealing to the conscience 
of the child and providing that the moral ideas gradually 
obtain command over him. 

Relation between Teacher and Pupil — The chief con- 
dition for a proper guidance is a right relation between 
educator and pupil. The necessary corrections of the 
child^s judgments, estimations aijd requests must always 
be regarded and received as a service of friendship, but 
not as an officious invasion. Otherwise the effect is 
entirely lost; reserve and retirement are the immediate 
consequence. Of course different natures are very dif- 
ferently endowed as regards their ability for self-obser- 
vation and self-government; therefore, for the same 
reason the activity of the educator is also very different 
in each case. It is difficult to give the educator definite 
directions, simply because the number of individual 



ne Theory of Guidance, 135 

cases is so great; because the same measure may pro- 
duce a yery different effect at different times. 

The Office of Training. — By way of summary, we may 
say with Herbart — (1) Training should restrain. Where 
the memory of the will is deficient, where thoughtless- 
ness takes its place, it is necessary to give stability to 
the pupil. He must know that he cannot go beyond 
certain limits; he must have a lively feeling that he 
possesses something in the satisfaction of his teacher 
which he will not willingly lose. (2) Training should 
exert a determinative influence. It should cause the 
pupil to choose, not the educator. (3) Training should 
regulate, i.e. the educator should not leave the pupil 
entirely to himself as soon as he begins to reflect upon 
acts that are permitted and not permitted. Training 
must take measures to prevent a false determination. 
He who lightly establishes his precepts must be made to 
feel how difficult it is to act in accordance with them. 

The Educator should Aim to so Guide the Pupil that 
he Fears Nothing More than His Own Judgment. — All 
this presupposes a constant, intimate intercourse between 
educator and pupil. The educator must understand 
how to bend his intellect to the world of the children; 
he must acquire sympathy for the inclinations, wishes, 
and. moods of the little ones; he must think, feel, and 
will with them; then he can succeed in guiding and 
educating them. But the guidance of the teacher has 
achieved a great deal when the pupil has reached the 
point at which' he fears nothing more than to find him- 
self, upon inner self-examination, despicable and repre- 
hensible in his own eyes, when he endeavors to bring his 
will into accord with the moral law, so that he cannot 
help despising himself if he does not obey. 



136 Outlines of Pedagogics, 



THE GOVEEIS'MEKT OF CHILDREl!^. 

Government Aims above all to Maintain Order.'— 

Government comprehends the system of measures by 
which the expressions and actions that do not issue from 
the hearts of the children are restrained and guided so 
as not to disturb the educative work of instruction and 
training. All the pure impulses of an unbridled natural 
power, of a wild impetuosity, must often be held in 
check by much stronger means than certain intense 
manifestations of the pupiPs will, which are very im- 
portant in themselves, but require a much more delicate 
handling. The measures that are taken for government 
aim above all to create and preserve order. All incivili- 
ties, all disturbances, all disorders should be removed; 
in fact, if possible, they should not appear at all, but 
should be nipped in the bud. If the will of the child is 
not to receive an uncompanionable tendency, he should 
be made to feel early and constantly the restraint which 
every individual within a community must bear. Gov- 
ernment, therefore, aims to attain no direct end what- 
ever in the mind of the child, but will only produce 
order; it aims to be felt as a power that is concerned 
with nothing further than the enforcement of its meas- 
ures. For this purpose various measures are at command 
which maybe classed — (1) as those that prevent disorder 
and (2) as those that suppress disorder. To the former 
belong, above all, the suitable occupation of the children. 
If they are well employed, if the proper change between 
work and recreation takes place, their thoughts are gen- 
erally far from disturbance. Furthermore, a suitable 
supervision will be able to nip many disorders in the 



The Theory of Guidance, 137 

budo For the removal of disorders that have abeady 
arisen, the reprimand, the threat, and the punishment 
are at the disposal of the educator. 

Punishment a Necessary Means — Experience shows 
that we cannot get along in education without ijunisli- 
ment. A glance at the history of education teaches 
what an important part it played in former times, when 
it was almost regarded as the only means of education. 
With the progress of humanity there has been an increase 
of the efforts to use that means of education most spar- 
ingly which is the most powerful, but hence least free 
from danger. 

The Purpose of Punishments. — This tendency is to 
be welcomed, because the sparing use of punishments 
increases their efficacy, while their continual application, 
often without a clear motive, only serves to blunt the 
effect. The purpose of punishment lies entirely with- 
in the educational system; it should help educate; it 
should combat the errors which the child commits. By 
breaking through the natural course of inner activity in 
some impressive way, it compels the mind of the child 
to reflect upon itself, and this is its purpose. It desires 
to produce introspection in the one who has been pun- 
ished, to make him sufficiently attentive to that which is 
taking place within his inner life. Here he must find 
that the punishment was deserved. When this is the 
case the punishment is properly effective and leads to 
improvement, if the further activity of the educator 
supplements it by preventing two great temptations 
and by supporting and encouraging higher interests. 

Rules the Punishing Educator Should Observe. — 
Since the efficacy of the punishment rests u23on the dis- 
turbance of the emotional life that it produces, on that 



138 Outlines of Pedagogics, 

account it should never become a daily or common 
occurrence. Every mere repetition finds the emotional 
life duller; the pupil is already prepared for it, expects 
it; it can impart no significant impulse to his train of 
thoughts. Therefore every punishment must be adapted 
to the individual character of each pupil; time and at- 
tendant circumstances must also be taken into account. 
On the other hand, we may say that the rareness with 
which the educator is compelled to have recourse to the 
severer forms of punishment affords a safe standard by 
which to estimate his art. The better the education is, 
so much the more may the punishment be dispensed 
with. Therefore the first law to be established here may 
be stated as follows : One must so educate that he will 
need to use punishment as little as possible. 

Different Kinds of Punishment. — But even the most 
careful education cannot withhold all evil from the 
heart of the child. Especially the energetic natures 
cannot be educated to obey freely without punishments. 
Free obedience, which leads to moral independence, 
consists in the proper insight into that which is bidden, 
and the will to think and act in accordance with this 
insight. Accordingly, two kinds of punishments may 
be distinguished: (1) punishment which increases the 
insight, punishment as a warning-, (2) punishment 
which influences the will, moral punishment. 

With these two forms of punishment is associated a 
third, namely, punishment which is applied merely for 
the purpose of discouraging certain acts. All aim to 
produce unconditional obedience in the pupil. But 
while government aims primarily only at submission on 
the part of the pupil, in that it does not attempt to act 
with the aid of underlying motives at all, training seeks 



The Theory of Guidance, 139 

to effect free obedieuce; it softens the harshness of the 
government in that it connects obedience closely with 
the child^s own will. 

Uniformity and Consistency Necessary. — Above all, 
education must proceed uniformly and consistently in 
matters of government. A quiet, firm decision, per- 
meated by love and sustained by dignity, will win the 
hearts of the youth and guide them safely. All disparity 
in bidding and forbidding, hesitation in the matters of 
punishment and reprimand, will avenge themselves bit- 
terly and prepare many troubled hours for the teacher. 

As soon as possible government must be dispensed 
with, and training in connection with instruction must 
carry on the business of education alone. 

III. Physical Cultuke. 

Physical Culture a Co-worker in Education. — Among 
the external measures which the educator must apply 
are those especially which are devoted to the physical 
culture of the child. While the measures for govern- 
ment are gradually withdrawn as soon as fixed habits 
and fixed morals have been developed, the care for the 
bodily growth and vigor will never relax, but remain a 
true and vigilant co-worker in the development of the 
child. 

Necessity of Care for Bodily Health and Vigor.— The 
multifarious business activity of the present is placing 
increased burdens upon the body, especially upon the 
nervous system as the medium of the mental labor. On 
this account, the present race is especially admonished 
to retain this body in health and vigor, in order that the 
individual may be able to meet the greater demands of 



I40 Outlines of Pedagogics. 

the present. The more we remove ourselves from the 
state of Nature, so much the more unfavorable do the 
conditions for the preservation of the physical health 
appear, so much the more do we lose the natural instinct 
for that which is of advantage to us physically. This 
fact argues the necessity of the care for the public 
health, which should extend also to the pupils. Here it 
appears in the form of school hygiene, or the theory of 
health in school. It has nothing to do with the cure of 
diseases, but merely with the precautions that are to be 
taken against disease. How many individuals, later in 
life, carry on a silent but constant battle against the 
defective disposition and functional irregularity of their 
bodies, especially of their nervous systems ! How often 
the battle is in vain, for the seeds of disease were sown 
in early youth, increased with years, and spread as long 
as the individual was not especially admonished with 
regard to his health ! 

Neglect of Physical Culture is Indirectly Neglect 
of the Mental Life. — Since the health and power of 
the mind also depend upon the physical health, because 
of the intimate reciprocal action between body and 
mind, the importance of the bearer of the mental life 
shows the educator very forcibly that he should not 
neglect the care for the body, if he does not desire to 
render the success of his work in general questionable. 
For although he has firmly laid the foundations of 
moral character in the soul of his pupil and cherishes 
the hope that the latter can some day act and work as 
a complete man in the family, the community and the 
state, what does all this avail if it has been gained at 
the cost of bodily health ? And what is true of the in- 
dividual is true of the people. Of what advantage is it 



The Theory of Guidance. 141 

to a nation to acliieve ever so lofty an intellectual cult- 
ure, if the strength, health, and elasticity of the body 
does not keep pace with it ? Must not that catastrophe 
then occur which history exemplifies in the Roman 
Empire of the world — a highly cultivated people, and 
a highly cultivated state, shattered by the G-ermanic 
tribes, who stood far behind in culture, but who could 
throw their youthful, fresh, physical power into the 
scales ? Hence the State education must be intent upon 
preserving this physical energy with the aid of special 
devices. It will accomplish nothing, however, as long 
as the education of the single individual does not in- 
clude the attentive care and thorough consideration of 
the bodily growth and vigor. 

The Teacher Should Know the Laws of Hygiene. — 
Thus a new and broad field of study and activity is 
open to the educator. A knowledge of the most neces- 
sary conditions of physical thrift is required of him. 
In this new sphere a new science offers its assist- 
ance, namely, P^.y5zoZo^^, and especially B'i/giene,^'hose 
teachings as regards means of nourishment, manner of 
living, clothing, etc., are of fundamental importance to 
the educator. 

How the Schools Provide for the Care of the Pupil's 
Health. — As already mentioned, a great deal has re- 
cently been accomplished in this line that is worthy of 
recognition. The number of writings that have already 
appeared upon the subject is very great. The complaint 
that the care for the pupils^ health has been sadly neg- 
lected in the schools has never been silenced. Prop- 
ositions have often been submitted for remedying the 
evil. The literature upon the subject treats (1) of the 
problem as a whole: (2) of care as regards the proper 



1 4 2 Outlines of Pedagogics. 

conditions of warmth, air, etc. (schoolhouse) ; (3) of 
care of the power of sight and physical growth (school- 
desk). 

The principles which education establishes for the 
care of the body must be reinforced by a system of 
gymnastic measures, free exercises, marching exercises 
with and without song or music, and games (football, 
base-ball, etc.), based upon anatomical and physiological 
principles and designed to render the body pliant, and 
as capable as possible of intercourse with the outer 
world. 



THE EKD» 



THE ENGLISH LITERATURE ON THE HER- 
BARTIAN SYSTEM. 



The following references contain the majority of what has 
been written in English upon the subject of the Herbartian 
pedagogics. No attempt has been made to refer to works 
outside of this field, as do the literary references in the orig- 
inal. The English-speaking pedagog will, of course, have a 
more or less thorough acquaintance with the already extensive 
English literature on the subject of Pedagogy in general. He 
has but to refer to such sources as the Bibliography of Edu- 
cation {Boston, 1886), by G. S. Hall and J. M. Mansfield, and 
the "Bibliography of Pedagogy " in Sonnenschein's Cyclopedia 
of Education (third ed. 1892), to obtain the most comprehen- 
sive and accurate directions to the literature of every possible 
department of education, or to Dr. W. T. Harris's Teachers' 
Course ofProfessional Reading for Home Worlc and Reading 
Circles, for a general, profitable course of reading. The fol- 
lowing list will be of service to those who desire to become 
more familiar with the rising Herbartian views : — 
Brown, G. P. : What is Interest ? in Public School Journal, 

vol. xii., ISTo. 1, Bloomington, 111. 
De Garmo, Dr. Charles : Essentials of Method, Boston, 1889; 
Ethical Training in the Public Schools ; Am. Academy of 
Pol. and Soc. Science, publication No. 49, Philadelphia; 
Language Work below the High Schools, Bloomington, 
111., since 1887 ; The Herbartian System of Pedagogics, in 
the Educational Review, New YorU, vol. i., Nos. 1, 3, and 

143 



1 44 Outlines of Pedag ogics . 

5;. The Relation of Instruction to "Will Training, in the 
publications of the Am. Nat. Ed. Assoc, 1890 ; What 
Does Apperception Mean ? in the Public School Journal^ 
vol. X., No. 11, 1891, Bloomington, 111.; A Popular View 
of Apperception, Public ScJiool Journal, vol. xii., No. 3, 
Bloomington, lll.\ Co-ordination of Studies, Ed. Rev., 
vol. iv., No. 5 ; The Educational Value of Natural Science 
in Elementary Schools, in Ed. Papers by 111. Science 
Teachers, i., 1889-90. 

Donaldson : Lectures on the History of Education in Prussia 
and England, Ediiiburgh, 1874, mentions Ziller's work 
briefly and favorably. 

Douglas, 0. H. : Certain Views of Herbart on Mathematics 
and Natural Science, Ed. Review, vol. iii., No. 5. 

FiNDLAY, J. J. : Herbartian Literature in English, /School and 
College, October and November, 1892. 

Hall, Dr. H.: Notes of the German Schools contains refer- 
ences to Herbart. 

Harris, Dr. "W. T. : Apperception Defined, and Apperception 
versus Perception, in the Public /School Journal, vol. xi., 
Nos. 2 and 5. 

Herbart : The Science of Education, and The JSsthetic Reve- 
lation of the World, translated by Henry M. and Emmie 
Felkin — Swan Sonnenschein & Co.. London, 1892. 

Herbart : Psychology, translated by Miss M. K. Smith, Inter- 
national Ed. Series, Wew Yoi'Jc, 1891. 

Klemm, L. R. : European Schools, mentions the Herbartian 
Pedagogics, and gives some criticism. International Ed. 
Series, Wew YorJi. 

Lange : Ueber Apperception, translated by the Herbart Club 
in America, Boston, 1892. 

Lindner : Empirical Psychology, translated by Dr. Charles De 
Garmo, New York, 1890. 

LuKENS, Dr. H. T.: Herbart's Psychological Basis of Teach- 
ing, Part II. of Th. B. Noss's Outlines of Psychology and 
Pedagogy, Pittsburg, 1890. 

MoMuRRY, Dr. Charles A. : The Elements of General Method 



Literary References, i45 

based on the Principles of Herbart, Bloomingfon, III.^ 
1802; A Geography Plan for the Grades of the Common 
Schools, and Pioneer History Stories for the 3d and 4th 
Grade, Winona, Mimi.^ 1891; How to Conduct the Reci- 
tation, Teachers' Manuals, No. 13, JSTeiv York and Chicago. 

McMuRRY, Dr. Frank : The Moral Value of Fairy Tales and 
Imaginative Literature for Children, in Public School 
Journal, Bloomington, III., vol. x., No. 11, and vol. xi., 
No. 3 ; Relation of Sciences to the other Studies, in Ed, 
Papers by III. Science Teachers, i., 1889-90, Peoria, HI.; 
Value of Herb. Ped. for Normal Schools in Proceedings 
of Nat. Ed. Assoc, for 1892. 

Prince, J. P. : Methods in German Schools mentions the Her- 
bartian Pedagogics briefly, and gives some criticism. 

PwiBOT, T. : German Psychology of To-day contains a digest of 
Herbart's psychology, New York, 1880. 

Salmon, Lucy M. : The Teaching of History in the Elementary 
Schools, Ed. RevieiD, New York, vol. i., No. 5, contains 
brief reference to the principles of the historical stages of 
culture and concentration. 

Smith, Margaret K. : Herbart's Life, three articles in the New 
England Journal of Education, 1889. 

Van Liew, C. C. : Life of Herbart and Development of his 
Pedagogical Doctrines — Swan Sonnenschein & Co., Lon- 
don, 1893. 

Ward : Article in the Encyclopedia Britannica on Herbart, 
important psychologically. 

A number of other articles and reviews might be mentioned 
that refer to Herbart's works or to Herbartian ideas. As yet 
Herbart is poorly represented in English Histories of Peda- 
gogics. 



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CAUTION. 

Our new authorized copyright edition, entirely rewritten hy 
iJie author, is the only one to buy. It is beautifully printed arid 
handsomely bound. Get no other. 

CONTENTS OF OUR NEW EDITION. 

Chap. I. 7 Mistakes in Aim. 
Chap. II. 21 Mistakes in School Management. 
Chap. III. 24 Mistakes in Discipline. 
Chap. IY. 27 Mistakes in Method. 
Chap. Y. 13 Mistakes in Moral Training. 
Chaps. I. and V. are entirely new. 




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K L. KELLOGG & CO ., NEW YOBK & CHICAGO, 25 

Taynes Lectures on the Science and 

Art op Education. Reading Circle Edition. By Joseph 
Payne, the first Professor of the Science and Art of Edu- 
cation in the College of Preceptors, London, England. 
With portrait. 16mo, 350 pp., English cloth, with gold 
back stamp. Price, $1.00 ; to teachers, 80 cents ; by mail^ 
7 cents extra. Elegant new edition from new plates. 

Teachers who are seeking t<i 
know the principles of education 
will find them clearly set forth in 
this volume. It must be remem- 
bered that principles are the basis 
upon which all methods of teach- 
ing must be founded. So valu- 
able is this book that if a teacher 
were to decide to own but three 
works on education, this would 
be one of them. This edition 
contains all of Mr. Payne's writ- 
ings that are in any other Ameri- 
can abridged edition, and is the 
only one with his portrait. It ia 
far superior to any other edition 
pubHshed. 
Joseph Payne. 

WHY THIS EDITION IS THE BEST 
(1.) The side-titles. These give the contents of tre page, 
(3.) The analysis of each lecture, v/ith reference to the educa' 
tional points in it. (3.) The general analysis pointing out the 
three great principles found at the beginning. (4.) The index, 
where, under such heads as Teaching, Education, The Child, 
the important utterances of Mr. Payne are set forth. (5.) 
Its handy shape, large type, fine paper, and press-work and 
tasteful binding. All of these features make this a most val- 
uable book. To obtain all these features in one edition, it 
was found necessary to get out this new edition. ^ 

Ohio Educational Monthly.— "It does not deal with shadowy xneories; 
it is intensely practical." 

Philadelphia Educational News.— " Ought to be in library of every 
progressive teacher." 

Educational Courant.— " To know how to teach, more v needed than 
a knowledge of the branches taught. This is especially vaiuable." 

Pennsylvania Journal of Education.—" Will be of practical valu« tf 
Normal Schools and Institute" 




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27 



Parkers Talks on Teaching. 

Notes of "lalkson Teaching" given by CoL. Francis W« 
Parker (formerly Superintendent of schools of Quincy, 
Mass.), before the Martha's Vineyard Institute, Summei 
of 1882. Reported by Lett A E. Patridge. Square 16mo, 
5x6 1-3 inches, 192 pp., laid paper, English cloth. Price, 
$1.35 ; to teachers^ |l.00 ; by mail, 9 cents extra. 
The methods of teaching employed in the schools of Quincy, 
Mass., were seen to be the methods of nature. As they were 
copied and explained, they awoke a great desire on the part 
of those who could not visit the schools to know the underly- 
ing priaciples. In other words. Colonel Parker was asked to 
explain why he had his teachers teach thus. In the summer 
of 1883, in response to requests, Colonel Parker gave a course 
of lectures before the Martha's Vineyard Institute, and these 
were reported by Miss Patrldge, and published in this book. 

The book became famous ; 
more copies were sold of it in 
the same time than of anj 
other educational book what- 
ever. The daily papers, which 
usually pass by such books 
with a mere mention, devoted 
columns to reviews of it. 

The following points will 
show why the teacher wiU 
want this book. 

1. It explains the " New 
Methods." There is a wide 
gulf between the new and the 
old education. Even school 
boards understand this. 

3. It gives the underlying 
principles of education. For it 
must be remembered that Col. Parker is not expounding his 
methods, but the methods of nature. 

3. It gives the ideas of man who is evidently an " educa- 
tional genius," a man born to understand and expound educa- 
tion. We have few such ; they are worth everything to the 
human race. 

4. It gives a biography of Col. Parker. This will help the 
teacher of education to comprehend the man and his motives, 

5c It has been adopted by nearly every State Reading Circle 




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IVelcFs Teachers Psychology. 

A Treatise on the Intellectual Faculties, the Order of the 
Growth, and the Corresponding Series of Studies by which 
they are Educated. By the late A. S. Welch, Professor of 
-Psychology, loM^a Agricultural College, formerly Pres, of 
the Mich. Normal School. Cloth, 12mo, 300 pp., |1.25; to 
teachers, $1; by mail, 12 cents extra. Special terms to 
Normal Schools and Reading Circles. 

A mastery of the branches to be taught was once thought to be 
an all-suflacient preparation for teaching. But it is now seen that 
there must be a knowledge of the mind that is to be trained. 
Psychology is the foundation of intelligent pedagogy. Prof, 
Welch undertook to write a book that should deal with mind- 

imfolding, as exhibited in the 
school-room. He shows what is 
meant by attending, memorizing, 
judging, abstracting, imagining, 
classifying, etc., as it is done by 
the pupil over his text-books. Firsts 
there is the concept; then there is 
(1) gathering concepts, (2) storing 
concepts, (3) dividing concepts, 
(4) abstracting concepts, (5) build- 
ing concepts, (6) grouping con- 
cepts, (7) connecting concepts, 
(8) deriving concepts. Each of 
these is clearly explained and il- 
lustrated ; the reader instead of 
being bewildered over strange 
terms comprehends that imagina- 
tion means a building up of con- 
cepts, and so of the other terms. 
A most valuable part of the book 
is its application to practical education. How to train these 
powers that deal with the concept — that is the question. There 
must be exercises to train the mind to gather, store, divide, abstract, 
build, group, connect, and derive concepts. The author shows 
what studies do this appropriately, and where there are mistakes 
made in the selection of studies. The book will prove a valuable 
one to the teacher who wishes to know the structure of the mind 
and the way to minister to its growth. It would seem that at 
last a psychology had been written that would be a real aid, in- 
stead of a hindrance, to clear knowledge. 




Dr. a. S, Welch. 



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M L. KELLOOG & CO., NEW YORK & CHICAGO. 



I 



ERS. By Jerome Allen, Ph.D., Associate Editor of the 
ScnooL Journal, Prof, of Pedagogy, Univ. of City of 
N. Y. 16mo, large, clear type, 128 pp. Cloth, 50 cents ; to 
teachers, 40 cents ; by mail, 5 cents extra. 

There are many teachers who 
know little about psychology, 
and who desire to be better in- 
formed concerning its princi- 
ples, especially its relation to the 
work of teaching. For the aid 
of such, this book has been pre- 
pared. But it is not a psychol- 
ogy—only an introduction to it, 
aiming to give some funda- 
mental principles, together with 
something concerning the phi- 
losophy of education. Its meth- 
od is subjective rather than ob- 
jective, leading the student to 
watch mental processes, and 
draw his own conclusions. It 
is written in language easy to 
be comprehended, and has many 
Jerome Allen, Ph.D.,Associate Editor practical illustrations. ^ It will 
of the Journal and ivsfitvde. aid the teacher in his daily work 
in dealing with mental facts and states. 

To most teachers psychology seems to be dry. This book shows 
how it may become the most^ interesting of all studies. It also 
shows how to begin the knowledge of self. " We cannot know 
in others what we do not first know in ourselves." This is the 
key-note of this book. Students of elementary psychology will 
appreciate this feature of "Mind Studies." 
ITS CONTENTS. 

CHAP. 

xn. From the Subjective to the 
Conceptive. 

XIII. The Will. 

XIV. Diseases of the Will. 
XV. Kinds of Memory. 

XVI. The Sensibilities. 
XVII. Relation of the Sensibilities 

to the Will. 
XVIII. Training of the Sensibilities. 
XIX. Relation of the Sensibilities 
to Morality. 
XX. The Imagination. 
XXI. Imagination in its Maturity. 
XXII. Education of the Moral Sense, 




I. How to Study Mind. 
IT. Some Facts in Mind Growth. 
in. Development. 
IV. Mind Incentives. 
V. A fev/ Fundamental Principles 

Settled. 
VI. Temperaments. 
VII. Training of the Senses. 
VIII. Attention. 
IX. Perception. 
X. Abstraction. 

XI. Faculties used in Abstract 
Thinking, 



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Fitch's Lectures on Teaching. 

Lectures on Teaching. By J. G. Fitch, M.A., one of Hei 
Majesty's Inspectors of Schools. England. Cloth, 16n)o, 
395 pp. Price, $1.25 ; to teachers, $1.00 ; by mail, postpaid. 

Mr. Fitch takes as his topic the application of principles to 
the art of teaching in schools. Here are no vague and gen- 
eral propositions, but on every page we find the problems of 
the school-room discmssed vt^ith definiteness of mental grip. 
No one who has read a single lecture by this eminent man 
but will desire to read another. The book is full of sugges- 
tions that lead to increased power. 

1. These lectures are highly prized in England. 

2. There is a valuable preface by Thos. Hunter, President 
of N. Y. City Normal College. 

3. The volume has been at once adopted by several State 
Reading Circles. 

EXTRACT FROM AMERICAN PREFACE. 
" Teachers everywhere among English-speaking' people have hailed 
Mr, Fitch's work as an invaluable aid for almost every kind of instruc- 
tion and school organization. It combines the theoretical and the prac- 
tical ; it is based on psychology ; it gives admirable advice on every' 
thing connected with teaching — from the furnishing of a school-room 
to the preparation of questions for examination. Its style is singularlj 
clear, vigorous and harmonious." 

Chicago Intelligence.— " All of its discussions are based on soun^ 
psychological principles and give admirable advice." 

Virginia Educational Journal.—" He tells what he thinks so as tc 
be helpful to all who are striving to improve." 

Lynn Evening Item.—" He gives admirable advice." 

Philadelphia Eecord.— " It is not easy to imagine a more useful vol- 
ume." 

"Wilmington Every Evening.—" The teacher will find in it a wealth 
of help and suggestion." 

Brooklyn Journal.—" His conception of the teacher is a worthy idea, 
for all to bear in mind.'' 

New England Journal of Education : " This is eminently the work of 
a man of wisdom and experience. He takes a broad and comprehensive 
view of the work of the teacher, and his suggestions on all topics are 
worthy of the most careful consideration." 

Brooklyn Eagle: "An invaluable aid for almost every kind of in- 
struction and school organization. It combines the theoretical and the 
practical ; it is based on psychology ; it gives admirable advice on every- 
thing connected with teaching, from the furnishing of a school-room tc 
the preparation of questions for examination." 

Toledo Blade : " It is safe to say, no teacher can lay claim to being 
well informed who has not read this admirable work. Its appreciation 
is shown by its adoption by sevprol Ptfite Teachers' Heading Circles, as 
a work to be thoroughly rer,u t*^ iia Uitaiitiers" 



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Dewefs How to Teach Manners in the 

School-Room. By Mrs. Julia M. Det^^y, Piiucipal of the 
NoiTQal School at Lo^A^ell, Mass., formerly Sunt, of Schools 
at Eoosick Falls, N. Y. Cloth, 16mo, 104 pp. Price, 50 
cents; to teachers, 40 cents; by mail, 5 cents extra. 
Many teachers consider the manners of a pupil of little impor- 
tance so long as he is industrious. But the boys and girls are to 
be fathers and mothers; some of the boys will stand in places of 
importance as professional men, and they will carry the mark of 
ill-breeding all their lives. Manners can be taught in the school- 
room: they render the school-room more attractive; they banish 
tendencies to misbehavior. In this volume Mrs. Dewey has shown 
how manners can be taught. The method is to present some fact 
of deportment, and then lead the children to discuss its bearings; 
thus they learn why good manners are to be learned and practised. 
The printing and binding are exceedingly neat and attractive," 

OUTLINE OF CONTENTS. 



Introduction. 

General Directions. 

Special Directions to Teachers. 

Lessons on Manners for Youngest 

PXJPILS. 

Lessons on Manners — Second Two 

Years. 
Manners in School— First Two Years. 

" " Second '' 

Manners at Home— First " 

" " Second " 

Manners in Public— First " 

" Second " 



Table Manners— First Two Years. 

' " Second " 

Lessons on Manners for Advanced 

Pupils. 
Manners in School. 
Personal Habits. 
Manners in Public. 
Table Manners. 
Manners in Society. 
Miscellaneous Items. 
Practical Training in Manners. 
Suggestive Stories, Fables, Anec- 
dotes, and Poems. 
Memory Gems. 

Central Scliool JorJiial.-" It furnishes illustrative lessons." 
Texas School Journal.—" They (the pupils) will carry the mark of ill- 
breeding all their lives (.unless taught otherwise)." 

Pacific Ed. Journal.—" Principles are enforced by anecdote and conver- 
sation." 
Teacher's Exponent.— " We believe such a book will be very welcome." 
National Educator.— " Common-sense suggestions." 
Ohio Ed. Monthly.—" Teachers would do well to get it." 
Nebraska Teacher. — "Many teachers consider manners of little im- 
portance, but some of the boys will stand in places of importance." 
School Educator.— " The spirit of the author is commendable." 
School Herald.—" These lessons are full of suggestions." 
Va. Scliool Journal.— "Lessons furnished in a delightful style." 
Miss. Teacher.—" The best presentation we have seen." 
Ed. Courant.— " It is simple, straightforward, and plain." 
Iowa Normal Monthly,—" Practical and well-arranged lessons on man- 
Bers." 

Progressive Educator.—" Will prove to be most helpful to the teacheJ 
Wlio desires her pupils to be well-mannered." 



SEND ALIi OR<'>Ea.S 'TO 

14 E. L. KELLOGG & CO., 25 CLINTON PLACE, N. Y. 

Tales Phi losophy of Education. 

By T. Tate. Revised and Annotated by E. E. Sheib, Ph. D., 
Principal of the Louisiana State Normal school. Unique 
cloth binding, laid paper, 331 pages. Price, $1.50 ; to teacJi- 

ersj $1.30 ; by mail, 7 cents extra. 

This has long been a standard work in England. Though 
published many years ago, most of its teaching is in direct 
line with the New Education. Col, Parker strongly recom- 
mends it as one of the best books for teachers who desire to 
study the foundation princixDles. This volume is especially 
strong in its discussion of the Philosophy of Education. Our 
edition is annotated with reference to words, expressions, and 
ideas that have been replaced by better. A very valuable 
feature is the distinction made in the type between that which 
is of first and secondary imp@rtance. 

Our edition is well printed on ^ood paper, and handsomely 
and durably bound in cloth. You will regret it if you buy 
any other than our edition of Tate. 

EXTRACT FROM PREFACE. 

" Tate's Philosophy of Education has long been held in high esteem 
by thoughtful teachers, and though published nearly thirty years ajo, 
no more lucid and compact a statement of principles has been maaa, 
and it well deserves to be reprinted. It was in this volume those edu, 
cational precepts were found that in these modern days are so familiar 
to the teacher : ' From the Known to the Unknown ;' ' From the Simple 
to the Complex ;' ' From the Concrete to the Abstract,' etc. The work 
displays a vast amount of pedagogical knowledge, and gives proof of 
the prolonged and careful study of the subject by the author. It can- 
not but aid the practical teacher, for a marked feature of the present 
stage of progress in education is the desire for the principles that 
govern the art of teaching." 

James MacAlister, Swpt. Schools, 
Phila., Pa, : " I have long regarded 
this as the best general treatise on 
the philosophy of education in the 
English la,nguage, and I am glad 
that you have placed it in the reach 
of American teachers. It is one of 
the flxst books which a teacher, 
desiring to understand the scien- 
tific principles on which his work 
rests, should study." 

T, M. Balliet, SmJt. Schools, 
Reading, Pa. : "• The book is a clas- 
sic on education, and will never 
grow old. The notes in yotir edi- 
tion are very excellent and add 



materially to the value of the 
book." 

J. H. Hoose, Pres. State Normal 
School, Cortland, N. Y.: "I am 
pleased with it. The editor ap- 
pears to have done his work con- 
scientiously and intelligently." 

E. A. Sheldon, Pres. State Nor- 
mal School, Oswego, N. Y.: " For 
more than twenty years it has been 
our text-book on this subject, and 
I know of no other book so good 
for the purpose. The edition you 
have issued is neatly gotten up, 
and very convenient for use in 
schools." 

Adopted by the Beading Circles of Neiv York, New Jersey, 
Illinois, and Minnesota. 



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E. L. KELLOGG & CO., NEW TOBK AND CHICAGO. 37 



Sbaw's Rational Question "Book 

*' The National Question Book." A graded course of 
studv for those preparing to teach. By Edwakd R. Shaw, 
Principal of the High School, Yonkers, N. Y., author of 
"School Devices,' etc Bound in durable English buck- 
ram cloth, with beautiful side-stamp. 12mo, 400 pp. 
Price, $1.75; net to teachers, postpaid. 
A new edition of this popular booJcis now ready, containing 
the following 

NEW FEATURES; 
READING. An entirely new chapter with answers. 
ALCOHOL and its effects on the body. An entirely new 
chapter with answers. 

THE PROFESSIONAL GRADE has been entiijely re- 
written and now contaius answers to every question. 

This work contains 6,500 Questions and Answers on 24: 
Different Branches of Study. 

ITS DISTINGUISHING FEATURES. 

1. It aims to make the teacher a better teacher. 

** How to Make Teaching a Profession" has challenged trie 
attention of the wisest teacher. It is plain that to accomphsh 
this the teacher must pass from the stage of a knowledge of 
the rudiments, to the stage of somewhat extensive acquire- 
ment. There are steps in this movement; if a teacher will 
take the first and see what the next is, he v^ll probably go on 
to the next, an.d so on. One of the reasons why there has 
been no movement forward by those who have made this first 
step, is that there was nothing marked out as a second step. 

2. This book vdll show the teacher how to go forward. 

In the preface the course of study usually pursued in our 
best normal schools is given. This proposes four grades ; 
third, second, fii'st, and professional. Then, questions are 
given appropriate for each of these grades. Answers follow 
each section. A teacher will use the book somewhat as 
follows : — If he is in the third grade he will put the questions 
found in this book concerning numbers, geography, history, 
grammar, orthography, and theory and practice of teaching 
to himself and get out the answer. Having done this he will 
go on to the other grades in a si nilar manner. In this way 
he will know as to hiSi^fiUKssi* to pass an exammatioa fo^* 



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— — .«£ 

Vatridge s "" Quincy Methods." 

<*"""" "■"""•" «]«^™~iiii. >iimi>. .iBBi I imiiiiiiiiii •■iii__ ■ II II I a 

The " Quincy Methods," illustrated ; Pen photographs from 
the Quincy schools. By Lslia E. Patridge. Illustrated 
with a number of engravings, and two colored plates. 
Blue cloth, gilt, 12mo, 686 pp. Price, $1.75 ; to teachers^ 
$1.40 ; by mail, 13 cents extra. 
When the schools of Quincy, Mass., became so famous 
ander the superintendence of Col. Francis W. Parker, thou- 
sands of teachers visited them. Quincy became a sort of 
" educational Mecca," to the disgust of the routinists, whose 
schools were passed by. Those who went to study the 
methods pursued there were called on to tell what they ha(i 
seen. Miss Patridge was one of those who visited the schools 
of Quincy ; in the Pennsylvania Institutes (many of wlii«h 
she conducted), she found the teachers were never tired of 
being told how thin.^s were done in Quincy. She revisited 
the schools several times, and wrote down what she saw ; then 
the book was made. 

1. This book presents the actual practice in the schools of 
Quincy. It is composed of *' pen photographs." 

2. It gives abundant reasons for the great stir produced by 
the two words " Quincy Methods." There are reasons for the 
discussion that has been going on among the teachers of late 
years. 

3. It gives an insight to principles underlying real educa- 
tion as distinguished from book learning. 

4. It shows the teacher not only what to do, but gives the 
way in which to do it. 

5. It impresses one with the spirit of the Quincy schools. 

6. It shows the teacher how to create an atmosphere of hap« 
piness, of busy work, and of progress. 

7. It shows the teacher how not to waste her time in worry 
ing over disorder. 

8. It tells how to treat pupils with courtesy, and get cour- 
tesy back again. 

9. It presents four years of work, considering Number, 
Color, Direction, Dimension, Botany, Minerals, Form, Lan- 
guage, Writing, Pictures, Modelling, Drawing, Singing, 
Geography, Zoology, etc. , etc. 

10. There are 686 pages; a large book devoted to the realities 
of school life, in realistic descriptive language. It is plain, 
real, not abstruse and uninteresting. 

11. It gives an insight into real education, tho educatioy 
urged by Pestalozzi, Froebel« Mann* Page^ Parker, etOo 



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32 E. L. KELLOGG <& CO., NEW YORK <& CHICAGO. 

Tere^s First Three Years of C hildhood, 

An Exhaustive Study op the Pstchologt of Children. By 
Bernard Perez. Edited and translated by Alice M. Christie, 
translator of " Child and Child Nature," with an introduction by 
James Sully, M.A., author of "Outlines of Psychology," etc. 
12mo, cloth, 334 pp. Price, $1.50 ; to teacMrs, $1.20 ; by mail, 10 
cents extra. 
This is a comprehensive treatise on the psychology of childhood, and 
is a practical study of the human mind, not full formed and equipped 
with knowledge, but as nearly as possible, ah origine — before habit, 
environment, and education have asserted their sway and made their 
permanent modifications. The writer looks into all the phases of child 
activity. He treats exhaustively, and in bright Gallic style, of sensa~ 
tions, instincts, sentiments, intellectual tendencies, the will, the facul- 
ties of Eesthetic and moral senses of young children. He shows how 
ideas of truth and falsehood arise in little minds, how natural is imita- 
tion and how deep is credulity. He illustrates the development of im- 
agination and the elaboration of new concepts through judgment, 
abstraction, reasoning, and other mental methods. It is a book that 
has been long wanted by all who are engaged in teaching, and especially 
by all who have to do with the education and training ol children. 

This edition has a new index of special value, and the book is care- 
fully printed and elegantly and durably bound. Be sure to get our 
standard edition. 

OUTLINE OF CONTENTS. 



CHAP. 

I. Faculties of Infant before Birth 
—First Impression of New- 
born Child. 
n. Motor Activity at the Begin- 
ning of Life— at Six Months— 
—at Fifteen Months. 
III. Instinctive and Emotional Sen- 
sations—First Perceptions. 
rv. General and Special Instincts. 
V. The Sentiments. 
VI. Intellectual Tendencies— Ver- 

acity— Imitation— Credulity. 
VII. The Will. 

VIII. Faculties of Intellectual Acqui- 
sition and Retention — Atten- 
tion—Memory. 

Col. Francis W. Parker, Principal Cook County Normal and Training 
School, Chicago, says:— "I am glad to see that you have published Perez's 
wonderful work upon childhood. I shall do all I can to get everybody to read 
it. It is a grand work," 

John Bascom, Pres. Univ. of Wisconsin, says:—" A work of marked 
interest." 

Cr. Stanley Hall, Professor of Psychology and Pedagogy, Johns Hopkins 
Univ., says:— "I esteem the work a very valuable one for primary aud kin- 
dergarten teachers, and for all interested in the psychology of childhood," 
And many other strong commendations. 



CHAP. 

IX. Association of Psychical States 
-Association— imagination. 
X. Elaboration of Ideas— Judg- 
ment — Abstraction — Com- 
parison — Generalization — 
Keasoning— Errors and Allu- 
sions — Errors and Allusions 
Owing to Moral Causes. 

XI. Expression and Language. 

XII. ^Esthetic Senses — Musical 
Sense — Sense of Material 
Beauty — Constructive In- 
stinct— Dramatic Instinct. 
Xni. Personalty— Eeflection— Moral 
Sense. 



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Loves Ind ustrial Educ ation. 

Industrial Education ; a guide to Manual Training. Br 
Samuel G. Loye, principal of the Jamestown, (N, Yl) 
public schools. Cloth, ISmo, 330 pp. with 40 full-page 
plates containing nearly 400 figures. Price, .$1.50; to 
teachers, $1.20 ; by mail, 12 cents extra. 
1, Industrial Education not understood. Probably the only 
man who has wrought out the problem in a practical way is 

Samuel G, Love, the superin- 



--INDUSTRIAL 
iEDUCATlON^ 




eLOVE* 



tendent of the Jamestown (N. 
Y.) schools, Mr. Love has now 
about 2,400 children in the 
primary, advanced, and high 
schools imdev his charge ; he 
is assisted by fifty teachers, so 
that an admirable opportunity 
was offered. In 1874 (about 
fourteen years ago) Mr. Love 
began his experiment ; gradu- 
ally^ he introduced one occu- 
pation, and then another, u^til 
at last nearly all the pupils are 
following some form of educat- 
ing work. 

2. Wliy it is demanded. The 
reasons for introducing it are 
clearly stated by Mr. Love, It 
was done because the. educa" 
tion of the books left the pu« 
pils unfitted to meet the prac^ 
tical problems the world asks them to solve. The world does 
not have a field ready for the student in book-lore. The state-^ 
ments of Mr. Love should be carefully read. 

3. It is an educational booJco Any one can give some 
formal work to girls and boys. "What has been needed has 
been some one who could find out what is suited to the little 
child who is in the " First Reader," to the one who is in the 
"Second Reader," and so on. It must be remembered the 
effort is not to make carpenters, and type-setters, and dress- 
makers of boys and girls, but to educate them by these occu^a' 
Hona better than without tlmm» 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 

020 972 076 



